हिंदी
CISCEISC (Arts) Class 12
प्रश्न पत्र३७२
पाठ्यपुस्तक उत्तर१६६८१
महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न एवं उत्तर५८८५
अवधारणा स्पष्टीकरण और वीडियो९५३
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पाठ्यक्रम

Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE Syllabus 2026-27

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CISCE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus - Free PDF Download

CISCE Syllabus 2026-27 Class 12: The CISCE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus for the examination year 2026-27 has been released by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations, CISCE. The board will hold the final examination at the end of the year following the annual assessment scheme, which has led to the release of the syllabus. The 2026-27 CISCE Class 12 Psychology Board Exam will entirely be based on the most recent syllabus. Therefore, students must thoroughly understand the new CISCE syllabus to prepare for their annual exam properly.

The detailed CISCE Class 12 Psychology Syllabus for 2026-27 is below.

Academic year:

CISCE Class 12 Psychology Revised Syllabus

CISCE Class 12 Psychology Course Structure 2026-27 With Marking Scheme

#Unit/TopicWeightage
1  Intelligence and Ability 
2  Personality 
3  Life Span Development 
4  Stress and Stress Management 
5  Psychological Disorders and Psychotherapy 
6  Social Thought and Social Behaviour 
7  Attitudes, Prejudice and Stereotypes 
8  Applications of Psychology to Different Areas of Life 
 Total -
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Syllabus

1 Intelligence and Ability [Revision]
  • Concept of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Intelligence
    • Activity: Fact or Belief?
    • Features
    • Gardner's Eight Intelligences
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Judging Intelligence from Behaviour  
      • Introduction
      • Why Behaviour Alone Is Unreliable?
      • Common Mistakes in Judging Intelligence
      • Factors Influencing Intelligence
      • Scientific Assessment
      • Key Point Summary
  • Measurement of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Binet's Contribution (1904)
    • Development of Intelligence Tests
    • Types of Intelligence Tests
    • Usefulness of Tests
    • Key Point Summary
    • Mental Age  
      • Introduction
      • Historical Framework
      • Calculation of Mental Age
      • Example 
      • Interpretation of Mental Age
      • Growth Pattern of Mental Age
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Intelligence Quotient  
      • Introduction
      • IQ Levels and Interpretation
      • Formula of IQ
      • Example
      • Activity: Calculation of IQ
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Validity of Intelligence Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Direct Concept Validity
      • Convergent Validity 
      • Types of Validity
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Validity of Intelligence Tests
  • Intelligent Tests  
    • Introduction
    • Historical Timeline
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points Summary
  • Types of Intelligence Tests  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Intelligence Tests
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Individual Test  
      • Introduction
      • Features of Individual Tests
      • Major Intelligence Testing Scales
      • Advantages of Individual Tests
      • Disadvantages of Individual Tests
      • Process of Individual Testing
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Points: Individual Test
    • Group Test  
      • Introduction
      • Historical Evolution
      • Advantages of Group Tests
      • Disadvantages of Group Tests
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Points: Group Test
    • Verbal Test  
      • Introduction
      • Features of Verbal Tests
      • Modern Verbal Intelligence Tests
      • Types of Verbal Test Questions
      • Activity: Verbal Analogy-Intelligence Test
      • Advantages of Verbal Tests
      • Disadvantages of Verbal Tests
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Point: Verbal Test
    • Non-Verbal Test  
      • Introduction
      • Features
      • Types of Non-Verbal Tests
      • Advantages of Non-Verbal Tests
      • Disadvantages of Non-verbal Tests
      • Research Evidence
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Non-Verbal Test
    • Infant Intelligence Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Gesell Developmental Schedules
      • Development Quotient (DQ)
      • Example Calculation
      • Milestones in Gesell Schedules
      • Supporting Research
      • Indian Context
      • Common Errors
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Culture Bias and Culture Fair Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Culture-Biased Tests
      • Culture-Fair Tests
      • Examples of Culture-Fair Tests
      • Cattell’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
      • Strategies for Fair Test Design
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Culture Bias and Culture Fair Tests
  • Non-Verbal Test> Raven's Progressive Matrices Test  
    • Introduction
    • Key Features
    • Test Structure
    • Scoring & Reliability
    • Applications
    • Common Mistakes & Tips
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Raven's Progressive Matrices Test
  • Levels of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Levels of Intelligence (I.Q. Ranges)
    • Things to Remember
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Levels of Intelligence
    • Implications of Intelligence Levels  
      • Introduction
      • Groups Based on IQ Scores
      • Who Are Gifted Children?
      • Differences in Performance
      • Why It Matters?
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Point Summary
    • Constancy of I.Q.  
      • Introduction
      • Main Findings
      • Factors Affecting IQ Constancy
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Age and Intelligence  
      • Introduction
      • Intelligence Growth Over the Lifespan
      • Distribution of IQ in the Population (Normal Curve)
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Determinants of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Heredity: The Genetic Blueprint
    • Environment: Shaping Potential
    • Heredity-Environment Interaction
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Hereditary Factors  
      • Introduction
      • Main Studies and Evidence
      • IQ and Heredity Studies
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Environmental Factors  
      • Introduction
      • Environmental Influence
      • Research Findings
      • Flowchart: Environmental Factors
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Environmental Factors
  • Hereditary Factors> Jensen’s Theory  
    • Introduction
    • Key Concepts
    • Jensen’s Hierarchical Model
    • Jensen’s Model Diagram
    • Criticisms
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Jensen’s Theory
  • Environmental Factors> Indian Studies on Environment and Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Major Indian Studies on Environment and Intelligence
    • Study by Das, Jachuck, and Panda (1968)
    • Study by Rath, Dash & Dash, 1973
    • Study by Das & Singha, 1974
    • Study by Jachuck & Mohanty, 1974
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Indian Studies on Environment and Intelligence
  • Environmental Factors> Culture  
    • Introduction
    • Impact of Culture on Abilities
    • Historical Evidence
    • Types of Intelligence Across Cultures
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Sex Differences  
    • Introduction
    • Hobson (1947) - Junior High Analysis
    • Havighurst & Breese (1949) - Age 13 Community Sample
    • Sweeney (1953) - College-Level Problem Solving
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Health  
    • Introduction
    • Healthy Heredity and Intelligence
    • Role of Endocrine (Hormonal) Glands
    • How Nutrition Affects Intelligence
    • Breaking Myths: Health and IQ
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Family Size  
    • Introduction
    • Key Findings
    • Explanatory Table
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Social Deprivation  
    • Introduction
    • Skeels’ 1966 Investigation
    • Impact of Deprivation Duration
    • Educational and Policy Implications
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Socio-economic Status  
    • Introduction
    • SES Levels and Resources
    • Impact on Intelligence
    • Impact on Personality
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Theories of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Theories of Intelligence
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Charles Spearman's Two Factor Theory  
      • Introduction
      • Historical Background
      • Understanding Factor Analysis
      • Two-Factor Theory
      • Thorndike's Alternative View
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Charles Spearman's Two Factor Theory
    • Louis Thurstone’s Multifactor Theory  
      • Introduction
      • Seven Primary Mental Abilities
      • Key Features of the Theory
      • Evaluation: Strengths and Limitations
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Louis Thurstone’s Multifactor Theory
  • Modern Theories of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Modern Intelligence Theory
    • Overview of Modern Intelligence Theories
    • Key Point Summary
    • Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory  
      • Introduction
      • Triarchic Theory Overview
      • Componential (Analytical) Intelligence
      • Experiential (Creative) Intelligence
      • Contextual (Practical) Intelligence
      • Key Points: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
    • Theory of Intelligence by Cattell  
      • Key Concepts
      • Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
      • Measurement & Assessment
      • Developmental Trends
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Theory of Intelligence by Cattell
  • New Trends in Intelligence> Emotional Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Activity 1: Examples of Emotional Intelligence
    • Importance of EI vs. IQ
    • Activity 2: Emotional Intelligence Comparison
    • Characteristics: High EI vs. Low EI
    • Models of Emotional Intelligence
    • Benefits of High EI
    • Key Points: Emotional Intelligence
  • New Trends in Intelligence> Artificial Intelligence  
    • Introduction 
    • Activity: Devices Using Artificial Intelligence
    • Human Intelligence vs Artificial Intelligence
    • Branches of AI
    • AI Workflow
    • Core Applications
    • Limits & Ethical Considerations
    • Key Points: Artificial Intelligence
  • Creativity and Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Everyday and Eminent Creativity
    • Features of Creativity
    • Theories and Definitions
    • Creativity and Intelligence: Relationship
    • Creativity & Intelligence Tests
    • Key Point Summary
    • Relation Between Creativity and Intelligence  
      • Introduction
      • Definition: Intelligence
      • Definition: Creativity
      • Intelligence vs. Creativity
      • Key Insights from Research
      • Traits of Creativity
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Concept of Aptitude  
    • Introduction
    • Aptitude vs. Intelligence vs. Achievement
    • Types of Aptitude Tests
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Types of Aptitude Tools  
    • Introduction
    • Flow Chart
    • Types of Aptitude Tools
    • Key Point Summary
  • Types of Aptitude Test> General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)  
    • Introduction
    • Purpose of GATB
    • Nine Aptitudes Measured by GATB
    • Using GATB Results for Career Planning
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
  • Types of Aptitude Test> Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)  
    • Introduction
    • Purpose and Benefits
    • Eight Subtests of DAT
    • Preparation Tips for Students
    • Key Points: Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)
  • Types of Aptitude Test> Special Aptitude Test  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Special Aptitude Tests
    • Aptitude Test Selection
    • Importance and Benefits
    • Consequences of Ignoring Aptitude
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Special Aptitude Test
  • Achievement Tests  
    • Introduction
    • Purpose of Achievement Tests
    • Features of Achievement Tests
    • Types of Achievement Tests
    • Steps in Test Construction
    • Key Points: Achievement Tests
    • Uses of Achievement Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Use in School Education 
      • Process of Achievement Testing
      • Use in Job Selection
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points Summary
    • Batteries of Achievement Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Features
      • Process of Constructing an Achievement Test Battery
      • Subtests in an Achievement Test Battery
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Combination of Aptitude-Achievement Batteries  
    • Introduction
    • Purpose and Importance
    • Components
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points Summary
  • Concept of Interest  
    • Key Terms
    • Relation Between Interest, Aptitude and Achievement
    • Measuring Interest
    • Importance of Interest Measurement
    • Types of Interests
    • Key Points Summary
  • Interest Tests  
    • Introduction
    • Importance of Interest Tests
    • Types of Interest Tests
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Interest Tests
  • Types of Interest Test Tools> Strong Vocational Interest Blank  
    • Introduction
    • History
    • SVIB Assessment Process
    • SVIB Item Clusters
    • Key Research Findings
    • Limitations
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Strong Vocational Interest Blank
  • Types of Interest Test Tools> Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (1974)  
    • Introduction
    • General Occupational Themes (GOT)
    • Career Planning Process
    • Basic Interest Scales
    • Occupational Scales (OS)
    • Personal Style Scales (PSS)
    • Conclusion
    • Key Points: Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (1974)
  • Comparison of Aptitude, Achievement, and Interest Tests  
    • Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests
    • Aptitude vs. Interest 
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points Summary
2 Personality [Revision]
  • Concept of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Etymology and Historical Context
    • Definition: Personality
    • Activity: Understanding Personality Traits
    • Approaches of Personality
    • Features of Personality
    • Major Dimensions: The Big Five
    • Common Misconceptions
    • Key Point Summary
  • Psychological System  
    • Introduction
    • Personality as a System
    • Uniqueness of Each Personality
    • Adjustment to the Environment
    • Central Traits (Allport’s Theory)
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Characteristics of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Characteristics of Personality
    • Personality Expression Modes
    • Key Point Summary
  • Personality Related Terms  
    • Introduction
    • Personality Related Terms
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Classification of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Flow Chart
    • Classification of Personality
    • Key Point Summary
    • Friedman's Theory of Personality  
      • Introduction
      • Type A Personality
      • Type B Personality
      • Core Symptoms of Type A Behaviour
      • Criticisms and Contemporary Extensions
      • Key Points: Friedman's Theory of Personality
    • Charak Samhita's of Ayurveda Theory of Personality  
      • Introduction
      • Pancha-Koshas: Five Sheaths of Existence
      • Triguna: Three Qualities of Mind
      • Brahmacharya and Herbal Formulations
      • Clinical Observation & Empathy
      • Key Points: Charak Samhita's of Ayurveda Theory of Personality
    • Sheldon’s Theory of Personality  
      • Introduction
      • Body Types and Personality Traits
      • Body Types
      • Core Explanations
      • Criticisms and Limitations
      • Common Errors
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Sheldon’s Theory of Personality
  • Charak Samhita's of Ayurveda Theory of Personality> Personality Type of Charaka and Sushruta  
    • Introduction
    • Key Terminology
    • Classification of Personality Types
    • Key Points: Personality Type of Charaka and Sushruta
  • Charak Samhita's of Ayurveda Theory of Personality> Personality Types based on Triguna  
    • Introduction
    • The Three Gunas
    • Triguna Types and Subtypes
    • Common Misconceptions
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Determinants of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Determinants
    • Biological/Hereditary Factors
    • Environmental Factors
    • Situational Factors
    • Psychological Factors
    • Key Points: Determinants of Personality
    • Situational Determinants  
      • Introduction
      • Theoretical Foundation
      • Three Categories of Situational Determinants
      • Natural Environment
      • Cultural Environment
      • Social Environment
      • Key Points: Situational Determinants
  • Situational Determinants> Role of Home  
    • Introduction
    • Key Terms
    • Early Attachment and Security
    • Impact of Parental Treatment
    • Baumrind’s Parenting Styles (1975)
    • Home Environment and Social Development
    • Key Point Summary
  • Situational Determinants> Effect of School and Education  
    • Introduction
    • Key Influences of School on Personality
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Situational Determinants> Sibling Rivalry  
    • Introduction
    • Importance in Personality Development
    • Factors Influencing Rivalry
    • Mechanisms & Theoretical Perspectives
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Point Summary
  • Environmental Factors> Socio-economic Status  
    • Introduction
    • SES Levels and Resources
    • Impact on Intelligence
    • Impact on Personality
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Measurement of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Key Concepts
    • Methods of Personality Assessment
    • Features of a Good Assessment
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Point Summary
    • Psychometric Tests  
      • Introduction
      • Core Domains of Psychometric Testing
      • Process of Psychometric Testing
      • Key Points: Psychometric Tests
    • Behavioural Analysis  
      • Introduction
      • Methods of Behavioural Analysis
      • Interview Method
      • Observation Method
      • Activity: Identifying Personality Traits through Observation
      • Nomination Method
      • Behavioural Ratings 
      • Situational Tests
      • Key Points: Behavioural Analysis
    • Projective Techniques  
      • Introduction
      • Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Test
      • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
      • Sentence-Completion Test
      • Activity: Sentence Completion Test
      • Draw-a-Person Test
      • Comparative Overview
      • Key Points: Projective Techniques
    • C.A.T. (Children’s Apperception Test)  
      • Introduction
      • Purpose and Theory
      • Structure & Administration
      • Areas Examined in Responses
      • Common Mistakes to Avoid
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: C.A.T. (Children’s Apperception Test)
  • Psychometric Tests> Questionnaires/Self Report Inventories  
    • Introduction
    • Features
    • Applications
    • Item Scoring Table
    • Advantages and Disadvantages
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Questionnaires/Self Report Inventories
  • Psychometric Tests> Use of Self-Report Inventories  
    • Introduction
    • How Self-Report Inventories Work
    • Features
    • Advantages
    • Limitations
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Use of Self-Report Inventories
  • Psychometric Tests> Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)  
    • Introduction
    • Test Format
    • MMPI 10 Clinical Scales
    • Validity Scales
    • Pros and Cons
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
  • Projective Techniques> Impressive  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Play Therapy
    • Process of Play Therapy
    • Common Toys and Materials Used
    • Benefits of Play Therapy
    • Psychological Concepts Underlying Play Therapy
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points Summary
  • Projective Techniques> Interpretive  
    • Introduction
    • Key Projective Techniques
    • Key Point Summary
    • Rorschach Test  
      • Introduction
      • Test Structure
      • Administration Process
      • Scoring System
      • Findings & Interpretation
      • Criticisms & Limitations
      • Key Points: Rorschach Test
    • Thematic Apperception Test  
      • Introduction
      • Historical Background
      • Process of Using TAT
      • Psychology Behind TAT
      • Applications of the TAT
      • Strengths of the TAT
      • Limitations of the TAT
      • Modern Developments
      • Key Points: Thematic Apperception Test
    • Kahn Test of Symbol Digit Arrangement  
      • Introduction
      • Features
      • Administration Procedure
      • Scoring Rubric
      • Professional Applications
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Kahn Test of Symbol Digit Arrangement
    • Word Association Test  
      • Introduction
      • Materials
      • Procedure
      • Reaction Signs & Interpretations
      • Interpretation & Applications
      • Key Points: Word Association Test
  • Types of Personalities  
    • Introduction
    • Type A Personality
    • Type B Personality
    • Type C Personality
    • Comparative View
    • Key Points: Types of Personalities
  • Theories of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Flow Chart
    • Theories of Personality
    • Key Point Summary
  • Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality> Pre-conscious or Sub-Conscious  
    • Introduction
    • Freud’s Iceberg Model of Mind
    • Detailed Breakdown of the Three Levels
    • Freud’s Techniques for Exploring the Unconscious
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Pre-conscious or Sub-Conscious
  • Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality> Structure of Freud's Theory of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Structure of Personality
    • Id (Desire)
    • Ego (Reason)
    • Super Ego (Conscience)
    • Interaction and Conflict
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Structure of Freud's Theory of Personality
  • Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality> Stages of Personality Development  
    • Introduction
    • Stages of Personality Development
    • Oral Stage
    • Anal Stage
    • Phallic Stage
    • Latency Stage
    • Genital Stage
    • Comparative Summary Table
    • Phallic Stage  
      • Introduction
      • The Phallic Stage (3–6 Years)
      • Conflict Resolution & Outcomes
      • The Latency Period (6–Puberty)
      • Impact and Importance
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Phallic Stage
    • Genital Stage  
      • Genital Stage
      • Characteristics
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Genital Stage
  • Neo-Freudian Theory of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Freud vs. Neo-Freudians
    • Major Neo-Freudian Theorists
    • Key Points: Neo-Freudian Theory of Personality
    • Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality  
      • Jung's Personality Types
      • Structure of the Psyche
      • Archetypes
      • Four Psychological Functions
      • Jung vs. Freud
      • Applications and Engagement
      • Key Points: Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality
    • A. Adler's Theory of Personality (1870-1937)  
      • Introduction
      • Key Concepts
      • Types of Personality (Adler)
      • Birth Order and Personality
      • Inferiority and Superiority Complex
      • Dreams (Adler’s View)
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: A. Adler's Theory of Personality (1870-1937)
    • Karen Horney (1950)  
      • Introduction
      • Causes of Neurosis
      • Neurotic Coping Strategies
      • Gender and Cultural Perspectives
      • Optimism & Therapy
      • Key Points: Karen Horney (1950)
  • Humanistic Approach  
    • Introduction
    • Rogers’ Self-Concept Theory
    • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
    • Characteristics of Psychologically Healthy People
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Humanistic Approach
    • Carl Roger's Self Theory  
      • Introduction
      • Key Terms
      • Characteristics of a Fully Functioning Person
      • Causes of Anxiety and Difficulty Adjusting
      • Strategies to Narrow the Self-Concept Gap
      • Components of Self-Concept
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Carl Roger's Self Theory
    • Maslow’s Theory of Self Actualization  
      • Introduction
      • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
      • Characteristics of Self-Actualized Individuals
      • Frustration of Higher-Order Needs
      • Peak Experiences
      • Cultural Influences
      • Key Points: Maslow’s Theory of Self Actualization
  • Descriptive Personality Theories  
    • Introduction
    • Major Approaches to Studying Personality
    • Type Approach
    • Trait Approach
    • Interactional Approach
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Type Theories  
      • Introduction
      • Personality Type Approaches
      • Hippocrates’ Four Humors
      • Ayurvedic Tridosha
      • Trigunas
      • Sheldon’s Somatotypes
      • Jung’s Introversion–Extraversion
      • Type A–D Personalities
      • Critiques & Applications
      • Key Points: Type Theories
    • Trait Theories  
      • Introduction
      • Major Trait Theories
      • Characteristics of Trait Theory
      • Criticisms
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Trait Theories
  • Type Theory> Jung's Type Theory  
    • Introduction
    • Jung’s Model of the Psyche
    • Core Personality Attitudes
    • Jung’s Four Psychological Functions
    • Application: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Jung's Type Theory
    • Extroverts  
      • Introduction
      • Key Traits of Extroverts
      • Application
      • Research Insight
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Extroverts
    • Introverts  
      • Introduction
      • Key Psychological Traits of Introverts
      • Key Interpretations
      • Behavioral and Physical Correlates
      • Key Points: Introverts
    • Ambiverts  
      • Introduction
      • The Personality Spectrum
      • Characteristics of Ambiverts
      • Advantages and Limitations of Typology
      • Comparison Table: Personality Types
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Ambiverts
  • Type Theory> Hippocrates' Type Theory of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • The Four Temperaments
    • Detailed Breakdown
    • Key Points: Hippocrates' Type Theory of Personality
  • Type Theory> Eysenck Concept of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Key Terms
    • Core Dimensions
    • Temperament Quadrants
    • Four Functional Sectors
    • Key Points: Eysenck Concept of Personality
  • Trait Theory> Cattell’s Concept of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Personality
    • Cattell’s Approach to Personality
    • Types of Traits
    • Sixteen Personality Factors (16PF)
    • Big Five Global Factors
    • Applications of Cattell’s Theory
    • Criticisms
    • Key Points: Cattell’s Concept of Personality
  • Catell's Concept of Personality> Criticism and Evaluation of Cattell’s Trait Theory  
    • Introduction
    • Surface Traits vs. Source Traits
    • Factor Analysis: Method and Application
    • Trait Consistency and Situational Interaction
    • Practical Application: Relationship Compatibility
    • Key Point Summary
  • Social Cognition and Social Learning Theories  
    • Introduction
    • Social Cognition
    • Learning in Social Contexts
    • Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
    • Process of Observational Learning
    • Rotter’s Social Learning Theory
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Points: Social Cognition and Social Learning Theories
    • Social Learning Theory of Bandura  
      • Introduction
      • Key Processes
      • Types of Models
      • Experimental Highlight: Bobo Doll Experiment
      • Applications in Education
      • Key Points: Social Learning Theory of Bandura
  • Trait Theory> Trait Theory of G. Allport  
    • Introduction
    • Trait Categories
    • Cardinal Traits
    • Central Traits
    • Secondary Traits
    • Key Points: Trait Theory of G. Allport
  • Trait Theory> Types of Traits  
    • Introduction
    • Ascendance and Submission
    • Expansive – Reclusive Type
    • Persistent – Non-Persistent Type
    • Modern Trait Analysis: Importance
    • Key Points: Types of Traits
  • Trait Theory> Dimensions of Personality  
    • Introduction
    • Flowchart: The Big Five Traits
    • The Big Five Traits
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
3 Life Span Development [Revision]
  • Concept of Life Span Development  
    • Introduction
    • Features
    • Growth vs Development
    • Major Stages of Life Span Development
    • Domains of Development
    • Importance of Studying Life Span Development
    • Methods of Studying Development
    • Key Point Summary
  • Growth and Development  
    • Introduction
    • Meaning of Growth
    • Meaning of Development
    • Relationship between Growth and Development
    • Factors Affecting Growth and Development
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Principles and Characteristics of Development  
    • Introduction
    • Principles of Development
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Trends of Development  
    • Introduction
    • Cephalocaudal Trend
    • Proximodistal Trend
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Trends of Development
  • Factors Influencing Development  
    • Introduction
    • Biological or Internal Factors
    • Environmental or External Factors
    • Social and Emotional Factors
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Factors Influencing Development
  • Importance of Studying Childhood Development  
    • Introduction
    • Importance of Studying Childhood Development
    • Effects of Poor Childhood Experiences
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Maturation and Learning or Heredity and Environment  
    • Introduction
    • Heredity: The Nature Side
    • Environment: The Nurture Side
    • Maturation: Inner Growth and Readiness
    • Learning: Experience-Based Change
    • Interaction between Heredity and Environment
    • Educational Implications
    • Maturation vs Learning
    • Key Point Summary
  • Genetic Bases of Development  
    • Introduction
    • Heredity
    • Role of Environment
    • Heredity and Environment Work Together
    • Scientific Explanation
    • Galton’s View
    • Key Point Summary
    • Chromosome  
      • Introduction
      • Chromosome Formation at Conception
      • Genes – The Carriers of Heredity
      • Role in Inheritance
      • Scientific Understanding
      • Key Point Summary
    • Genes  
      • Introduction
      • Structure of DNA
      • Genes and Chromosomes
      • How Genes Work (Central Dogma)
      • Functions of DNA
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Personality  
      • Introduction
      • Heredity and Behaviour
      • Twin Studies
      • Personality Traits Related to Heredity
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Mechanism of Heredity Transmission  
    • Introduction
    • Meaning of Hereditary Transmission
    • Role of Genes and Chromosomes
    • Model of DNA
    • Inheritance of Trait
    • Differences Among Siblings
    • Fixation of Traits at Conception
    • Scientific View (Kuhlen & Thompson)
    • Crossing Over – Ensuring Uniqueness
    • Special Case: Identical Twins
    • Key Point Summary
    • Sex Determination  
      • Introduction
      • Chromosomes – The Deciding Factor
      • Genetic Factors That Determine Sex
      • Possible Gene Combination of Offspring
      • Extra Facts
      • Key Point Summary
  • Concept of Intelligence  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Intelligence
    • Activity: Fact or Belief?
    • Features
    • Gardner's Eight Intelligences
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Importance of Heredity in Development  
    • Introduction
    • Relationship Between Heredity and Environment
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Heredity's Role in Human Development  
      • Introduction
      • Pintner’s View (1931)
      • Research by Pearson (1904)
      • Role of Heredity in Human Development
      • Modern Understanding of Heredity and Environment
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Heredity's Role in Human Development
    • Environment's Role in Human Development  
      • Introduction
      • Early Research Studies (1920s)
      • Watson’s Behaviourist View
      • Balanced Modern View: Nature and Nurture Together
      • Formula of Development
      • Trait Influence
      • Studies Showing Genetic Limits
      • Early Childhood: A Crucial Stage
      • Role of Environment in Shaping Personality
      • Modern Understanding
      • Key Point Summary
  • Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System Theory  
    • Introduction
    • About Urie Bronfenbrenner
    • The Five Environmental Systems
    • Integration of the Ecological Systems
    • Importance of Theory
    • Later Development: Bioecological Model
    • Key Points: Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System Theory
    • Levels of Ecological System  
      • Introduction
      • Microsystem – Immediate Environment
      • Mesosystem – Connections Between Microsystems
      • Exosystem – Indirect Influences
      • Macrosystem – Culture and Society
      • Chronosystem – Time and Life Changes
      • The Bioecological Model (Update)
      • How All Systems Work Together?
      • Key Points: Levels of Ecological System
    • Technology and Ecological System  
      • Introduction
      • Effects of Technology
      • Merits of Technology
      • Demerits of Technology
      • Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Stages of Development> Period of Infancy  
    • Introduction
    • Neonatal Period (Birth to 10–14 Days)
    • Babyhood (After 14 Days up to 2 Years)
    • Key Features of Infancy
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Period of Infancy
    • Crying and Breathing  
      • Introduction
      • Crying and Breathing
      • Sleep in Newborns
      • Sleep by Age
      • Key Point Summary
    • Temperature  
      • Temperature
      • Hunger
      • Feeding Frequency
      • Key Point Summary
  • Stages of Development> Prenatal Developmental Period  
    • Prenatal Period
    • Major Stages of Prenatal Development
    • Key Milestones in Each Stage
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Prenatal Developmental Period
  • Sensory Development of the Neonate> Reaction to Sound  
    • Introduction
    • Reaction of Newborn to Sound
    • Rhythm and Familiar Sounds
    • Research on Sound Sensitivity
    • Baby's Reaction to Sound Types
    • Key Point Summary
  • Sensory Development of the Neonate> Smell and Taste  
    • Introduction
    • Smell in Newborns
    • Taste in Newborns
    • Baby Responses to Stimulus
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Sensory Development of the Neonate> Temperature  
    • Introduction
    • Reaction of Newborns
    • Individual Differences
    • Key Point Summary
  • Sensory Development of the Neonate> Pain  
    • Pain Sensitivity in Newborns
    • Emotion of the Newborn Infant
    • Bodily Growth in Infancy
    • Key Point Summary
  • Stages of Development> Babyhood  
    • Introduction
    • Main Features of Babyhood
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Babyhood
  • Stages of Development> Childhood  
    • Introduction
    • Key Growth Areas
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Childhood
  • Concept of Adolescence  
    • Introduction
    • Meaning
    • Stages of Adolescence
    • Development of Sexual and Secondary Sexual Characters
    • Physical Changes during Adolescence
    • Emotional and Social Changes
    • Adolescence as a Phase
    • Key Points: Adolescence
    • Adjustment Demands of Adolescence  
      • Introduction
      • Main Adjustment Demands of Adolescence
      • Identity Crisis (Erikson’s Concept)
      • Major Developmental Tasks
      • Success and Challenges
      • Key Points: Adjustment Demands of Adolescence
    • Socio-Emotional Impact on Adolescents  
      • Introduction
      • Stages and Main Emotions
      • Factors Affecting Socio-Emotional Development
      • Social Behaviours and Their Effects
      • Adjustment Problems
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Physical Development  
    • Meaning of Motor Responses
    • Principles of Physical and Motor Development
    • After Birth
    • Influence of Physical Growth
    • Key Point Summary
    • Height and Weight  
      • Introduction
      • How Genes and Environment Work?
      • Growth Facts from Birth to Adolescence
      • Main Factors Affecting Growth
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Development of Nervous System  
      • Introduction
      • Before Birth (Prenatal Development)
      • After Birth (Postnatal Development)
      • Key Points: Development of Nervous System
  • Motor Development  
    • Introduction
    • Importance of Motor Development
    • Reflexes in Newborns
    • Other Major Reflexes
    • Mass and Specific Movements
    • How Development Progresses?
    • Key Points: Motor Development
    • Locomotor Development  
      • Introduction
      • Importance
      • Stages of Locomotor Development
      • Research Highlights
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Locomotor Development
    • Bipedal Locomotion  
      • Introduction
      • Stages in the Development of Walking
      • Key Points: Bipedal Locomotion
    • Objective Performance  
      • Introduction
      • Importance in Development
      • When Does It Develop?
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Piaget's Concept of Cognitive Development  
    • Introduction
    • How Children Learn: Adaptation, Assimilation, and Accommodation
    • Assimilation vs. Accommodation
    • Stages of Cognitive Development
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Piaget's Concept of Cognitive Development
  • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development  
    • Introduction
    • The Four Stages
    • Key Point Summary
    • Sensory-Motor Period  
      • Introduction
      • Substages of Sensory-Motor Period
      • Key Points: Sensory-Motor Period
    • Pre-Operational Period  
      • Introduction
      • Sub-Stages of Preoperational Period
      • Key Features
      • Key Points: Pre-Operational Period
    • Period of Intuitive Thought  
      • Introduction
      • Key Features
      • Limitations of Thinking
      • Role of Language
      • Social and Cultural Effects
      • Key Points: Period of Intuitive Thought
    • Concrete Operation Stage  
      • Introduction
      • Features
      • Before and After Concrete Operation
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Concrete Operation Stage
  • Sensory-Motor Period> Internal Mental Combination (18-24 months)  
    • Introduction
    • Key Features
    • What is New at This Stage?
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Emotional Development during Infancy and Childhood  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Emotion
    • Importance of Emotions
    • Key Features of Emotion
    • Key Point Summary
    • Development of Emotion  
      • Introduction
      • How Did Psychologists Respond?
      • Age-wise Emotional Changes
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Role of Learning and Imitation  
      • Introduction
      • How Learning and Imitation Shape Emotions?
      • Classic Experiment: Watson’s Little Albert
      • Types of Emotional Development
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Concept and Nature of Attachment  
    • Introduction
    • Features
    • Attachment Responses
    • Research Highlights
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Growth of Attachment  
      • Introduction
      • Harlow’s Monkey Experiment
      • Harlow’s Findings and Human Attachment
      • Bowlby’s View of Attachment
      • Example
      • Growth of Attachment in Human Infants
      • Conditions that Help or Disturb Attachment
      • Attachment as a Developmental Process
      • Bilateral (Two-Way) Nature of Attachment
      • Key Points: Growth of Attachment
    • Formation of Attachment  
      • Introduction
      • How Are Attachments Formed?
      • Role of Learning (Stimulus Generalization)
      • Spreading Attachment to Others
      • When Attachment Fails
      • Effects of Poor Attachment
      • Advice for Parents
      • Key Points Summary
    • Role of Feeding in Attachment  
      • Introduction
      • How Feeding Behaviour Helps Attachment?
      • Breastfeeding vs Bottle Feeding
      • Demand Feeding vs Fixed Time Feeding
      • Comfort and Muscle Relaxation
      • Schema: How Babies Know Their Mother
      • Attachment to Other Caregivers
      • Culture and Attachment
      • Key Point Summary
    • Attachment and Anxiety  
      • Introduction
      • Types of Anxiety
      • How Children Cope?
      • Attachment to People and Objects
      • Research Findings
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
    • Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test (1965)  
      • Introduction
      • Stepwise Procedure
      • What Does the Test Measure?
      • Types of Attachment (from Reunion Behaviour)
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test (1965)
  • Beginning of Social Behaviour  
    • Introduction
    • Beginning of Social Behaviour
    • Studies on Babies During Play
    • Growth of Cooperation and Friendliness
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
    • Reaction to Mother  
      • Introduction
      • Why is Warm Mothering Important?
      • What Happens When Mothering is Cold or Unreliable?
      • Attachment and Social Development
      • Social Development Steps
      • Differences in Social Development
      • Poor Social Development
      • How to Help Social Development?
      • Key Point Summary
    • Early Childhood (2 yrs – 6 yrs)  
      • Introduction
      • Role of Development and Family
      • Role of School and Peers
      • Sharing and Aggression - Case Study
      • Egocentrism and Social Training
      • Social Behaviour and Play
      • Friendships and Conflicts
      • Competitive Behaviour
    • Role of Peers in Social Development  
      • Introduction
      • How Peers Influence Social Development?
      • Peer Influence Factors
      • Impact of Lack of Real Peers
      • Consequences of Lack of Peers
      • Key Point Summary
  • Development of Gender Identity  
    • Meaning and Start of Gender Identity
    • Definition: Gender Identity
    • Role of Parents, Family and Culture
    • Biological Sex, Play and Socialization
    • Everyday Signs of Gender Identity
    • Culture Types and Processes in Gender Identity
    • Key Point Summary
  • Development of Gender Roles  
    • Meaning
    • Gender Roles in Different Cultures
    • Factors that Influence Gender Roles
    • Traditional View of Women’s Roles
    • Examples of Women Breaking Traditional Roles
    • Learning of Gender Roles from Early Childhood
    • Role of Culture and Social Control
    • Biological Disadvantages
    • Changing Gender Roles in the 21st Century
    • Key Point Summary
  • Gender Typing  
    • Meaning
    • Who Influences Gender Typing?
    • Development of Gender Typing
    • Gender Stereotypes
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Points: Gender Typing
  • Types of Stereotypes  
    • Gender Stereotypes  
      • Meaning
      • Common Gender Stereotypes
      • Can Gender Stereotypes Change?
      • Harmfulness of Strong Gender Stereotypes
      • Equality of Men and Women
      • Gender Stereotypes and Discrimination
      • Role of Teachers and Schools
      • Parents and Family
      • Gender Stereotypes in India
      • Why Do Gender Stereotypes Continue?
      • Key Points: Gender Stereotypes
  • Gender Differences in Development  
    • Beliefs About Gender
    • Biological and Social Causes
    • Culture, Dress, and Control
    • Male-Dominated Society and Women’s Position
    • Change, Empowerment, and Children’s Learning
    • Key Point Summary
  • Major Concerns of Adolescence > Delinquency  
    • Meaning
    • Key Features of Delinquency
    • Causes of Delinquency
    • Handling Delinquency
    • Prevention of Delinquency
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Delinquency
  • Elements of Gender Differences  
    • Introduction
    • Elements of Gender Differences
    • Key Point Summary
  • Conscience and Moral Development  
    • Introduction
    • Early Stage: Pleasure Principle
    • Rapid Development in Childhood
    • Shift from Self to Others
    • Agents that Help Moral Development
    • Learning Social Rules and Good Habits
    • Generalised Morality in Early Years
    • Key Point Summary
    • Factors Influencing Conscience  
      • Meaning of Conscience
      • Main Influences on Conscience
      • Role of Experience, Imitation, and Advice
      • Mother’s Attitude and Parenting Style
      • Love-Oriented Discipline (Mussen)
      • Operant Conditioning Idea (Skinner)
      • Key Points: Factors Influencing Conscience
    • Morality and Conscience in Adolescence  
      • Key Terms
      • Role of Parents (Sears and Maccoby, 1957)
      • When There Is No Warm Relationship
      • Meaning of Morality
      • Morality and Human Values
      • How Morality First Develops?
      • Rigidity of conscience and morality before 12 years
      • Key Points: Morality and Conscience in Adolescence
    • Piaget's View on Moral Development  
      • Piaget’s Main Idea
      • Two Types of Morality (Piaget)
      • Change in Moral Thinking Around 9–12 years
      • Influence of Family, Religion, and Peers on Moral Development
      • Development of Conscience and Possible Problems
      • Key Points: Piaget's View on Moral Development
  • Major Concerns of Adolescence > Substance Abuse  
    • Introduction
    • Main Concepts
    • Warning Signs
    • How Substance Abuse Harms?
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Point Summary
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Eating Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Eating Disorders
    • Anorexia Nervosa
    • Bulimia Nervosa
    • Binge Eating
    • Key Points: Major Psychological Disorder> Eating Disorders
    • Bulimia Nervosa  
      • Meaning
      • Onset and Who Gets It
      • Causes
      • Age and Gender Trends (Heatherton et al., 1997)
      • Consequences
      • Treatment
      • Key Points: Bulimia Nervosa
    • Anorexia Nervosa  
      • Introduction
      • Who gets Anorexia Nervosa?
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Anorexia Nervosa vs. Normal Eating
      • Risks and Consequences
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Anorexia Nervosa
  • Kohlberg's View on Moral Development  
    • Role of Thinking in Moral Development
    • From Rigid Rules to Flexible Rules
    • Example: Murder and Motive
    • Example: Stealing in Extreme Hunger
    • Moral Dilemmas and Pressure Situations
    • Different Opinions in a Moral Dilemma
    • Cultural Differences in Morality
    • Key Points: Kohlberg's View on Moral Development
  • Critique of Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Theory  
    • Introduction
    • Link to Piaget
    • Stages and Levels
    • Method: Moral Dilemmas
    • Educational Application
    • Cross-Cultural Questions
    • Indian Research: Vasudav and Hummel (1987)
    • Overall Evaluation
    • Key Points: Critique of Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Theory
  • Cognitive Development during Adolescence  
    • Changes in Thinking
    • Key Concepts
    • Boys and Girls
    • Piaget’s Theory
    • Key Point Summary
4 Stress and Stress Management [Revision]
  • Concept of Stress  
    • Introduction
    • Meaning of Stress and Stressors
    • Definition: Stress
    • Stress in Modern Life
    • Stress as Demand and Pressure
    • Examples
    • Positive and Negative Sides of Stress
    • Eustress and Distress
    • Working Definition of Stress
    • Key Point Summary
  • Nature of Stress  
    • Meaning of Stress
    • Positive and Negative Stress
    • Origin and Basic Concept of Stress and Strain
    • Modern Psychological View of Stress
    • Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus)
    • Factors Affecting Stress Experience
    • Types and Dimensions of Stressors
    • Stress Reactions
  • Process of Stress  
    • Stress as a Process
    • Stressors and Their Dimensions
    • Individual Differences in Stress
    • Appraisal, Resources and Social Support
    • Managing Stress
  • Levels of Stress  
    • Introduction
    • Biological Level of Stress
    • Psychological Level of Stress
    • Individual and Group Levels of Stress
    • Brain Pathways and Arousal in Stress
    • Emotional, Behavioural and Cognitive Reactions
    • Key Point Summary
  • Concept of Stressors  
    • Meaning
    • Main Types of Stressors
    • Detailed Life-Area Stressors
    • Strong Negative Stressors (Kaplan & Sadock)
    • Individual Differences in Response to Stressors
    • Stressors, Adjustment Disorder and Reactions
  • Types of Stressors  
    • Introduction
    • Negative Stressors
    • Positive Stressors
    • Effects of Positive Stressors
    • Real-Life Application
  • Characteristics of Stressors  
    • Characteristics of Stressors
    • Effects of Stress on Health and Performance
    • Psychophysiological Reaction Patterns (Wolff)
    • Stress and Specific Disorders (Alexander)
    • Key Point Summary
  • Concept of Burnt Out  
    • Meaning
    • Effects of Burnout
    • Daily Work‑Related Burnout
    • Other Situations Leading to Burnout
    • Need For Coping
  • General Adoption Syndrome (G.A.S.)  
    • Meaning
    • Why Does This Reaction Happen?
    • Stages of General Adaptation Syndrome
    • Effect of Perception and Control
    • Individual Differences and Coping
    • Selye’s Main Conclusions from GAS
    • Key Point Summary
    • Limitations of G.A.S.  
      • Introduction
      • Main Limitation of GAS
      • Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus & Folkman; Croyle)
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Point Summary
  • Types of Stress  
    • Introduction
    • Main Types of Stress
    • Physical and Environmental Stress
    • Psychological Stress
    • Social Stress
    • Interrelation of Types of Stress
    • Key Point Summary
  • Sources of Stress  
    • Introduction
    • Main Sources of Stress
    • Life Events
    • Daily Hassles
    • Traumatic Events
    • Key Points: Sources of Stress
  • Sources of Stress> Environmental/Situational, External  
    • Introduction
    • Holmes and Rahe (1967) Study
    • Major and Minor Life Events
    • Stress Points and Illness
    • Chronic Stressors and Illness
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points Summary
  • Sources of Stress> Internal Sources of Stress  
    • Introduction
    • Inner Pressure
    • Self-ideal, Conscience and Guilt
    • Level of Aspiration
    • Personality Variables: Traits and Types
    • Id–Ego–Superego Conflict (Inner Conflict)
    • Key Points Summary
    • Introversion and Extroversion  
      • Introduction
      • Introverts and Extroverts Under Stress
      • Disease‑Prone vs Resilient Individuals​
      • Optimism and Pessimism
      • Coping Strategies of Optimists and Pessimists
      • Factors Affecting Stress Tolerance
      • Key Points Summary
    • Personality Types of Variables  
      • Introduction
      • Type A Personality
      • Type B Personality
      • Type C Personality
      • Sex Differences and Job Status
      • Emotional Intelligence, Introversion, and Stress
      • Key Points: Personality Types of Variables
  • Effects of Stress on Physical Health  
    • Effects of Stress on Physical Health
    • Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning
    • Examination Anxiety
    • Stress, Health, and Burnout
    • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
    • Stress and the Immune System
    • Stress, Negative Emotions, and Psychological Disorders
    • Lifestyle
    • Key Points: Effects of Stress on Physical Health
    • Cardiovascular Disorder  
      • Introduction
      • Role of Emotional Stress
      • Major Psychosomatic Cardiovascular Disorders
      • Psychological Impact
      • Key Points: Cardiovascular Disorder
    • Coronary Heart Disease  
      • Meaning
      • Development of CHD
      • Emotions, Stress and Blood Clotting
      • Research Evidence: Macht’s study
      • Stress and Early Coronary Disease (Soldiers)
      • Stress in Professionals: Kisker’s Report
      • Personality and CHD: Type A behaviour
      • Key Points: Coronary Heart Disease
    • Essential Hypertension  
      • Introduction
      • Sensitivity of the Heart to Emotional Stress
      • Role of Kidneys and Renin
      • Symptoms and “Silent” Course
      • Role of Emotional Stress and Environment
      • Psychoanalytic Explanation of Hypertension
      • Key Points: Essential Hypertension
    • Tension Headaches  
      • Introduction
      • Meaning
      • Role of Emotional Stress
      • Mechanism (Psychosomatic Link)
      • Typical Experience
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Tension Headaches
    • Asthma  
      • Meaning
      • Symptoms and Experience of an Attack
      • Psychological and Emotional Factors
      • Psychological Treatment Approaches
      • Relaxation and Family/Milieu Approaches
      • Asthma as a Psychophysiologic Disorder
      • Example of Stress‑Related Asthma
      • Key Points: Asthma
    • Eczema  
      • Meaning
      • Skin as an Indicator of Emotional States
      • Eczema as a  Psychosomatic Disorder
      • Role of Emotional Stress: Brown (1972)
      • Impact on Quality of Life: Shelley & Edson (1973)
      • Key Points: Eczema
    • Peptic Ulcers  
      • Meaning
      • Incidence and Symptoms
      • Organic and Psychological Causes
      • Dual Explanation: Physiological and Psychological
      • Role of Emotions and Classic Studies
      • Peptic Ulcer as Psychosomatic Disorder and Management
      • Key Points: Peptic Ulcer
    • Colitis  
      • Meaning
      • Types of Colitis
      • Main Symptoms
      • Colitis as a Psychophysiological Disorder
      • Engel’s Observations and Family Relationships
      • Key Points: Colitis
    • Diabetes  
      • Stress and Lifestyle Factors
      • Blood Pressure and Blood Sugar Correlation
      • Nature and Causes of Diabetes
      • Key Points: Diabetes
  • Effects of Stress on Performance  
    • Introduction
    • Research Findings
    • How Stress Affects Performance?
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Effects of Stress on Performance
  • Effects of Stress on Mental Illness  
    • Introduction
    • Help-Seeking for Stress-Related Problems
    • Common Stress-Related Mental Problems
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Effects of Stress on Mental Illness
  • Stress Management  
    • Introduction
    • Laughter Clubs and Communication
    • Hobbies, Music and Outdoor Games
    • Exercise, Yoga and Relaxation
    • Life Skills and Positive Thinking
    • Nature and Social Health
    • When Personal Methods Are Not Enough
    • NGOs and Government Support
    • Key Points: Stress Management
    • Stress Management Techniques  
      • Introduction
      • Stress Management Techniques
      • Spiritual / Lifestyle Programme (Art of Living)
      • Key Points: Stress Management Techniques
    • Ineffective Ways of Handling Stress  
      • Introduction
      • Avoidance and Denial
      • Unhealthy Substance Use
      • Emotional and Physical Suppression
      • Destructive Actions
      • Key Points: Ineffective Ways of Handling Stress
  • Stress Management Techniques> Sudarshan Kriya  
    • Meaning
    • How Sudarshan Kriya helps in stress
    • Research findings – Sudarshan Kriya
    • Real-life Relevance – Sudarshan Kriya
    • Key Points: Sudarshan Kriya
  • Stress Management Techniques> Biofeedback  
    • Introduction
    • Meaning
    • How Biofeedback Works
    • Stages of Biofeedback Training
    • Applications and Benefits
    • Key Points: Biofeedback
  • Stress Management Techniques> Relaxation Techniques  
    • Relaxation and Stress
    • Progressive Relaxation of Muscles
    • Exercise as a Stress‑management Technique
    • Laughter as a Stress Reliever
    • Laughter and JPMR
    • Laughter Clubs and Older Adults
    • Key Points: Relaxation Technique
  • Ineffective Ways of Handling Stress> Ineffective Responses  
    • Meaning
    • Ineffective Responses
    • Effects of Prolonged Stress
    • Dealing with Unavoidable Stressors
    • Effective vs Ineffective Responses
    • Key Points: Ineffective Responses
  • Ineffective Ways of Handling Stress> Defence Mechanisms of the Ego  
    • Defence Mechanisms and Stress
    • Sublimation
    • Rationalization
    • Overall Role in Stress Management
    • Key Points: Defence Mechanism of the Ego
    • Repression  
      • Introduction
      • Id–Ego–Superego
      • Nature and Main Features
      • Effects and Limitations
      • Modern View
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Repression
    • Regression  
      • Introduction
      • How Regression Works
      • Regression, Fixation and Psychosexual Stages
      • Maladaptive / Unhealthy Regression
      • Normal / Healthy Regression
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Points: Regression
    • Projection  
      • Introduction
      • Definition: Projection
      • Role of the Ego in Projection
      • When Projection Occurs
      • Projection and Stress Management
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Projection
    • Displacement  
      • Introduction
      • Types of Displacement
      • Disorders
      • Real-Life Applications
      • Key Points: Displacement
    • Reaction Formation  
      • Introduction
      • Definition: Reaction Formation
      • Mechanism
      • Evaluation
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Reaction Formation
  • Promoting Positive Health and Well-being  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Positive Health
    • Definition: Health Promotion
    • Definition: Wellness
    • Definition: Life Skills
    • Factors Influencing Positive Health and Well-being
    • Key Points: Promoting Positive Health and Well-Being
  • Impact of Stress on Well-Being  
    • Introduction
    • Common Reactions to Stress
    • Key Coping Techniques
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Impact of Stress on Well-Being
  • Effective Lifestyle  
    • Introduce Novelty
    • Stress Triggers and Solutions
    • Cultivate Positive Attitude
    • Reframe Negatives Lightly
    • Key Points: Effective Lifestyle
5 Psychological Disorders and Psychotherapy [Revision]
  • Concept of Abnormal Behaviour  
    • Basics of Abnormal Psychology
    • Definition: Distress
    • Definition: Dysfunction
    • The Four D’s of Abnormality
    • Conceptual Approaches
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Points: Concept of Abnormal Behaviour
  • Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Statistical Perspective  
    • Normality and Abnormality
    • Definition: Mental Disorders
    • Statistical / Quantitative Criterion of Abnormality
    • Bell-shaped (normal probability) Curve
    • Significance of the Statistical Concept
    • Criticisms and Limitations of the Statistical Model
    • Modern Perspectives on Abnormal Behaviour
    • Key Points: Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Statistical Perspective
  • Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Biological and Medical Perspectives  
    • Introduction
    • Brain, Neurotransmitters and Biochemical Systems
    • Genetic Factors
    • Neuropsychology and Brain-Imaging Evidence
    • Key Points: Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Biological and Medical Perspectives
  • Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Psychological/Psychodynamic Perspective  
    • Need for Psychological Models
    • Behavioural (learning) Model
    • Cognitive Factors
    • Psychodynamic (Freudian) Perspective
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Psychological/Psychodynamic Perspective
  • Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Socio-Cultural Perspective  
    • Introduction
    • Main Socio-Cultural Factors
    • Real-Life Applications
    • Key Points: Socio-Cultural Perspective
  • Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Diathesis-Stress Perspective  
    • Basic Idea and Main Factors
    • Role of Environment and Individual Differences
    • Diathesis–Stress Model and PTSD
    • Integrated Model / Perspective of Abnormal Behaviour
    • Key Points: Perspectives of Abnormal Behaviour> Diathesis-Stress Perspective
  • Features of Abnormal Behaviour  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Abnormality
    • Features of Abnormal Behaviour
    • Key Points: Features of Abnormal Behaviour
  • Classification of Psychological Disorders  
    • Why Classify Psychological Disorders?
    • Definition: Syndrome
    • What is a Syndrome?
    • Need for Classification in Mental Health
    • Evolution and Revisions
    • DSM-V Classification System
    • ICD-10 Classification System
    • Benefits of Classification
    • Diagnosis Process
    • Key Points: Classification of Psychological Disorders
    • APA Criteria of Abnormal Behaviour  
      • Introduction
      • APA's Core Criteria
      • Dysfunction, Distress, and Disability (The 3 D's)
      • Culturally Inappropriate
      • Key Points: APA Criteria of Abnormal Behaviour
    • DSM-V Classification  
      • Meaning of DSM-V
      • The 5-Axis System (Multi-Dimensional Diagnosis)
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: DSM-V Classification
  • DSM-IV Classification System> DSM-IV Multiaxial System  
    • Axis I: Clinical Disorders
    • Axis II: Personality Disorders
    • Axis III: General Medical Conditions
    • Axis IV: Psychosocial Problems
    • Axis V: Global Functioning
    • Key Points: DSM-IV Classification System> DSM-IV Multiaxial System
  • DSM-IV Classification System> Schizophrenia Symptoms (as per DSM-IV-TR)  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Schizophrenia
    • Thought and Language Disorders
    • Definition: Hallucinations
    • Perception Disorders
    • Mood Disorders
    • Definition: Stereotyped Acts
    • Motor Behaviour Disorders
    • Social Withdrawal
    • Cultural Factors
    • Key Points: DSM-IV Classification System> Schizophrenia Symptoms (as per DSM-IV-TR)
  • Limitations of DSM-IV  
    • Introduction
    • Limitations of DSM-IV
    • Why DSM-IV Remains Used?
    • Key Points: Limitations of DSM-IV
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Anxiety Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Anxiety Disorder
    • Definition: Panic Attack
    • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
    • Phobic Disorders
    • Other Anxiety Disorders
    • Common Symptoms
    • Activity: Exploring Different Types of Phobias
    • Case Study
    • Key Points: Major Psychological Disorder> Anxiety Disorders
    • Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders  
      • Introduction
      • Anxiety Symptoms
      • Definition: Panic Disorder
      • Panic Disorder: Sudden, Intense Fear Bursts
      • Definition: Phobia
      • Phobic Disorders: Irrational, Persistent Fears
      • Definition: Social Phobia
      • Types of Phobias
      • Key Points: Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)  
    • Introduction
    • OCD: Normal Worry vs. Disorder
    • Definition: Obsessive Behaviour
    • Definition: Compulsive Behaviour
    • Obsession vs. Compulsion
    • Everyday Signs of OCD
    • Related Disorders
    • Key Points: Major Psychological Disorder> Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
    • Concept of Obsession  
      • Definition: Obsession
      • Key Features
      • Common Examples
      • In Children
      • Key Points: Concept of Obsession
    • Compulsive Disorder  
      • Introduction
      • Definition: Compulsive Disorder
      • Definition: Compulsion
      • Common Compulsive Behaviours
      • Obsessive Reactions
      • Relationship Between Obsessions and Compulsions
      • OCD in Normal Personalities
      • Beneficial OCD Traits for Careers
      • Problematic OCD Traits for Careers
      • Impact of Untreated OCD
      • Key Points: Compulsive Disorder
  • Mood Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Mood Disorders
    • What Makes a Mood Disorder?
    • Real-Life Application
    • Key Points: Mood Disorders
    • Depressive Disorders  
      • Definition: Depressive Disorder
      • Major Depressive Disorder Symptoms
      • Definition: Manic Depressive or Bipolar Disorder
      • Definition: Cyclic Psychoses
      • Normal vs. Depressive Disorder
      • Bipolar Disorder
      • Bipolar Mania Phase
      • Bipolar Depression Phase
      • Risk Factors
      • Key Points: Depressive Disorders
  • Causes of Depression  
    • Introduction
    • Biological Causes of Depression
    • Learned Helplessness and Negative Self-Views
    • Heightened Self-Awareness
    • Guilt, Shame, and Cultural Differences
    • Psychoanalytic Views on Bipolar Disorder
    • Key Points: Causes of Depression
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Dissociative Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Dissociative Disorders
    • Types of Dissociative Disorders
    • Causes and Context
    • Key Points: Depressive Disorders
    • Dissociative Amnesia  
      • Definition: Dissociative Amnesia
      • Dissociative Amnesia
      • Dissociative Fugue
      • Definition: Dissociative Identity Disorder
      • Dissociative Identity Disorder
      • Key Points: Dissociative Amnesia
  • Personality Disorder  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Personality Disorder
    • Flow Chart: Personality Disorders
    • Types of Personality Disorder
    • Anti-social Personality Disorder  
      • Introduction
      • Prevalence and Juvenile Delinquency
      • Causes of Anti-social Behaviour
      • Societal Impact
      • Key Points: Anti-social Personality Disorder
    • Avoidant Personality Disorder  
      • Meaning
      • Definition: Avoidant Personality Disorder
      • Symptoms
      • Causes
      • Effects
      • Treatment
      • Key Points: Avoidant Personality Disorder
    • Histrionic Personality Disorder  
      • Introduction
      • Definition: Histrionic Personality Disorder
      • Key Behaviours
      • Hidden Challenges
      • Management Tips
      • Key Points: Histrionic Personality Disorder
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Eating Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Types of Eating Disorders
    • Anorexia Nervosa
    • Bulimia Nervosa
    • Binge Eating
    • Key Points: Major Psychological Disorder> Eating Disorders
    • Anorexia Nervosa  
      • Introduction
      • Who gets Anorexia Nervosa?
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Anorexia Nervosa vs. Normal Eating
      • Risks and Consequences
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Anorexia Nervosa
    • Bulimia Nervosa  
      • Meaning
      • Onset and Who Gets It
      • Causes
      • Age and Gender Trends (Heatherton et al., 1997)
      • Consequences
      • Treatment
      • Key Points: Bulimia Nervosa
  • Behavioural and Developmental Disorders  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Behavioural Disorders
    • Major Categories
    • Key Points: Behavioural and Developmental Disorders
    • External Behaviour Disorders  
      • Introduction
      • Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
      • Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
      • Conduct Disorder (CD)
      • Key Points: External Behaviour Disorders
    • Internal Behaviour Disorders  
      • Why SAD Matters?
      • Normal vs. SAD
      • Symptoms
      • Causes and Risk Factors
      • Prevention and Help
      • Key Points: Internal Behaviour Disorders
    • Autism  
      • Introduction
      • Symptoms
      • Causes (Risk Factors)
      • Treatment
      • Key Points: Autism
  • Major Psychological Disorder> Schizophrenia  
    • Origin
    • Definition: Schizophrenia
    • Key Theorists
    • Positive Symptoms
    • Negative Symptoms
    • Psychomotor Symptoms
    • Overall Impact
    • Key Points: Major Psychological Disorder> Schizophrenia
    • Treatment and Management of Schizophrenia  
      • Early Detection Importance
      • Treatment Methods
      • Disease Characteristics
      • Role of Family Support
      • Social and Community Support
      • Key Points: Treatment and Management of Schizophrenia
  • Symptoms of Schizophrenia> Positive Symptoms  
    • Introduction
    • Positive Symptoms
    • Key Points: Symptoms of Schizophrenia> Positive Symptoms
  • Symptoms of Schizophrenia> Negative Symptoms  
    • Introduction
    • Definition: Negative Symptoms
    • Symptoms
    • Behavioural Characteristics
    • Daily Life Impacts
    • Key Points: Symptoms of Schizophrenia> Negative Symptoms
  • Concept of Psychotherapy  
    • Meaning of Psychotherapy
    • Definition: Psychotherapy
    • Purpose of Psychotherapy
    • Common Characteristics of All Psychotherapies
    • Goals of Psychotherapy
    • Definition: Therapeutic Relationship / Therapeutic Alliance
    • Concept of Therapeutic Relationship
    • Features of the Therapeutic Relationship
    • Key Points: Concept of Psychotherapy
  • Forms of Psychotherapy  
    • Forms of Psychotherapy Overview
    • Three Broad Classifications
    • Parameters of Classification of Psychotherapies
    • Clinical Formulation Process
    • Key Points: Forms of Psychotherapy
    • Psychodynamic Therapies  
      • Main Assumption of Psychodynamic Therapies
      • Freud's Personality Structure
      • Cause of Mental Disorders
      • Key Contribution and Therapy
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Psychodynamic Therapies
    • Behaviour Therapies  
      • Meaning and Nature of Behaviour Therapy
      • Definition: Behaviour Modification
      • Core Beliefs and Theoretical Roots
      • Historical Foundations
      • Method of Treatment - Behavioural Analysis
      • Antecedent and Consequent Operations
      • Reinforcement Techniques
      • Definition: Token Economy
      • Aversive Conditioning
      • Systematic Desensitisation
      • Definition: Modelling
      • Relaxation Procedures and Modelling
      • Classical Conditioning for Enuresis and Therapist's Skill
      • Key Points: Behaviour Therapies
    • Cognitive Therapy  
      • Introduction
      • Cognitive Therapy Principles
      • Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) by Albert Ellis
      • Beck's Cognitive Therapy
      • Benefits and Features of CBT
      • Key Points: Cognitive Therapy
  • Psychodynamic Therapies> Psychoanalysis  
    • Introduction
    • Therapeutic Process
    • Evaluation Strengths
    • Limitations
    • Criticisms
    • Modern Adaptations
    • Key Points: Psychodynamic Therapies> Psychoanalysis
    • Techniques used in Psychoanalysis  
      • Introduction
      • Flow Chart: Psychoanalytic Techniques
      • Free Association
      • Dream Interpretation
      • Resistance
      • Transference
      • Key Points: Techniques used in Psychoanalysis
  • Psychodynamic Therapies> Alfred Adler's Psychodynamic Therapy  
    • Adler's Psychodynamic Therapy
    • Alfred Adler: Lifestyle and Social Interest
    • Inferiority Complex
    • Key Points: Alfred Adler's Psychodynamic Therapy
  • Psychodynamic Therapies> Sullivan's Psychodynamic Therapy  
    • Main Assumption
    • Role of Early Relationships
    • Focus of Sullivan’s Therapy
    • Position of Psychoanalysis Today
    • Key Points: Sullivan's Psychodynamic Therapy
  • Humanistic-existential Therapy> Client Centred Therapy  
    • Background – Humanistic and Existential Therapies
    • Aim of Client‑Centred Therapy
    • Theoretical Basis – Self‑Actualisation
    • Non‑Directive Nature and Therapeutic Climate
    • Warm, Accepting Environment and Its Effects
    • Empathy, Congruence, and Unconditional Positive Regard
    • Client’s Role and Guiding Principles
    • Limitations
    • Key Points: Humanistic-existential Therapy> Client Centred Therapy
  • Behaviour Therapies> Systematic Desensitisation  
    • Meaning
    • Theoretical Basis
    • Main Steps
    • Applications
    • Key Points: Behaviour Therapies> Systematic Desensitisation
  • Behaviour Therapies> Operant-Based Behaviour Therapy  
    • Meaning
    • Use of Reinforcers
    • Findings of Ayllon and Houghton (1962)
    • Work of Ayllon and Azrin (1968)
    • Applications to Childhood Problems and Retarded Children
    • Combination of Classical and Operant Conditioning
    • Key Points: Behaviour Therapies> Operant-Based Behaviour Therapy
    • Aversion Therapy  
      • Meaning
      • Principle
      • Technique/Procedure
      • Applications of Aversion Therapy
      • Criticisms and Limitations
      • Key Points: Aversion Therapy
    • Flooding or Impulsive Therapy  
      • Meaning
      • Portney’s View and Basic Idea
      • Lechman’s View (1969)
      • Theoretical Basis
      • Real-Life Application
      • Key Points: Flooding or Impulsive Therapy
    • Modelling  
      • Introduction
      • Use of Modelling to Treat Phobias
      • Use of Modelling for Interpersonal Problems
      • Process of Modelling
      • Key Points: Modelling
    • Assertive Training  
      • Meaning and Uses of Assertive Training
      • Nonassertive Individuals
      • Assessment and Procedure of Assertive Training
      • Goal of Assertive Training (Duke and Nowicki, 1979)
      • Key Points: Assertive Training
    • Thought Stopping  
      • Meaning
      • Origin/Development
      • Procedure
      • How it works?
      • Key Points: Thought Stopping
    • Token Economy  
      • Meaning of Token Economy
      • Definition: Token Economy
      • Meaning of Token
      • Purpose/Aim of Token Economy
      • Steps in Token Economy
      • Behaviours Targeted
      • Outcome
      • Key Points: Token Economy
  • Behaviour Therapies> Evaluation of Behaviour Therapy  
    • Advantages of Behaviour Therapy
    • Limitations of Behaviour Therapy
    • Overall Evaluation
    • Key Points: Behaviour Therapies> Evaluation of Behaviour Therapy
  • Rehabilitation  
    • Meaning and Purpose of Rehabilitation
    • Definition: Rehabilitation
    • When and Who to Rehabilitate?
    • Forms, Settings, and Activities in Rehabilitation
    • Rehabilitation as Therapy and Its Effects
    • Dimensions and Outcomes of Rehabilitation
    • Educational and Training Aspects
    • Organisation, Government Role, and Long‑Range Planning
    • Key Points: Rehabilitation
6 Social Thought and Social Behaviour [Revision]
7 Attitudes, Prejudice and Stereotypes [Revision]
8 Applications of Psychology to Different Areas of Life [Revision]

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