Revision: Attitudes, Prejudice and Stereotypes Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

• "Attitude is primarily a way of being set towards or against certain things." - Murphy and Murphy (1937)
• "Attitude is a readiness for attention or action of a definite pattern." - Baldwin
• "The specific mental disposition toward an incoming experience whereby the experience is modified or a condition of readiness for a certain type of activity is referred to as attitude." - Warren
• "An attitude is a more or less permanently enduring state of readiness of mental organisation which predisposes an individual to react in a characteristic way to any object or situation with which it is related." - Cantril
• "Attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object." - Fishbein and Ajzen (1975)
• Attitude is a mental or neural state of readiness organised through experience, influencing dynamically or directly the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related.

Kretch and Crutchfield and Ballachey (1962) hold that attitudes have an adoptive significance in that they represent a fundamental psychological link between a person’s ability to perceive, feel and learn while giving order and meaning to his continuing experience in a complex social environment.

• A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
• In social psychology, a group is defined as ‘two or more interacting persons who share common goals, have a stable set of role relationships, are somehow interdependent, follow a set of norms that regulate their behaviours, and perceive that they are in fact a part of the group.

• “A small group is usually of 2 to 10 persons who have common objects of attention, jointly attempt at problem solving and decision making, who are strongly stimulating each other, who have common loyalty, and participate in similar activities.” - Kuppuswamy
• “A small group is a small number of persons with intimate relationships with each other, who collectively and vigorously work for the group's goal.” - Borgardus

• A prejudice may be defined as a composite of stereotypes, myths, and legends in which the group label or symbol is used to classify, characterise, or define an individual or a group considered as a totality.
• Baron and Byrne (1988) have defined prejudice as a specific type of attitude where individual traits and behaviour play little role.
• According to Fieldman (1985), prejudice is a positive or negative evaluation or judgement of members of a particular group which are based primarily on the fact of their membership in the group and not necessarily because of particular characteristics of individual members.
• Allport defines prejudice as a negative attitude towards human beings that is held because of their membership or of their suppressed membership of certain groups.
• According to Kretch and Crutchfield, prejudice refers to some attitude or belief that serves to place the objects of the attitudes and beliefs at an advantage or disadvantage.
• According to Sherif and Sherif (1969), ‘Group prejudice refers to unfavourable attitudes held by the members derived from their group's norms that regulate treatment of the outgroup.

• Stereotypes have been defined as a false classificatory concept to which, as a rule, a strong emotional feeling tone of likes and dislikes, approval, and disapproval is attached.
• According to Lippman, stereotypes are individual attitudes so strongly interconditioned by collective contacts that they become highly standardised and uniform within the group.

Fixed ideas and false concepts of one's caste refer to caste stereotypes.

• Attitude is a mental state developed through socialisation, reflecting beliefs, values, and norms, influencing behaviour and social interactions.
• Attitudes play a central role in social psychology, shaping personal behaviour and guiding responses to situations, people, and groups.
• People conform to social norms and develop attitudes through social interaction, influencing their actions and responses in society.
• Attitudes consist of three components: cognitive (beliefs and knowledge), affective (emotions like love or hate), and behavioural (tendency to act).
• The cognitive component refers to beliefs or knowledge about an object or situation, forming the basis for attitudes.
• The affective component involves emotional responses (e.g., like or dislike) toward an object, often resistant to change.
• The behavioural component indicates the tendency to act in a certain way based on one's attitude, influenced by both cognitive and affective components.

• Wurzburg Laboratory's work laid the foundation for attitude studies.
• Thomas and Znaniecki (1948) promoted attitude analysis in sociology.
• Boas and Malino studied attitudes in cultural contexts.
• Allport, Thurstone, Bogardus, Likert, and Droba developed attitude measurement methods.
• Measuring attitudes helps understand their development, changes, and public opinion.

• Subject-Object Relationship: Attitudes are linked to specific objects, people, or situations, and are shaped through social interaction and personal experiences.
• Components of Attitude (ABC Model): Attitudes consist of three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective (emotions), and behavioural (actions), which together guide a person’s behaviour.
• Development Through Experience: Attitudes develop through both direct (personal experiences) and indirect (social influences, such as family and peers) experiences.
• Valence and Emotional Tone: Attitudes are never neutral; they are positive, negative, or neutral, shaped by emotions like love, hate, or fear, and influence how we react to objects or situations.
• Guidance of Behaviour: Attitudes direct behaviour by creating a tendency to approach (positive) or avoid (negative) certain things, guiding responses to the environment.
• Enduring Nature: Attitudes are generally stable and consistent over time, though they can change through new experiences, learning, or social interactions.
• Attitude Change and Complexity: Attitudes can be changed by new information or experiences. They can be simple or complex, with central attitudes having a more significant impact on other attitudes and behaviour.

• Reciprocal Attitude: Attitudes formed in mutual relationships (e.g., employer-employee, teacher-student).
• Common Attitude: Shared by large groups in society, such as disliking dowry.
• Private Attitude: Personal, secret attitudes not shared by others.
• Selective and Hierarchical: People prioritize and select certain attitudes based on needs.
• Types of Attitude: Classified into theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious.
• Theoretical Attitude: Focused on seeking truth and understanding (e.g., scientists).
• Economic, Aesthetic, and Social Attitudes: Economic focuses on utility, aesthetic on beauty, and social on helping others.

• Attitudes Are Learned: Attitudes develop through personal experiences, interactions, and indirect genetic influences.
• Socialisation: Attitudes form through interactions with family, peers, and media, which teach values and behaviours.
• Learning by Rewards & Punishments: Positive behaviours lead to favourable attitudes, while negative behaviours result in unfavourable ones.
• Personal & Vicarious Experience: Attitudes can form from direct personal experiences or by observing others' behaviours and their outcomes.
• Cognitive Development: As children grow, they differentiate and develop more complex attitudes based on their experiences.
• Reference Groups: Family, peers, and social groups influence attitude formation and guide behaviour through group norms.
• Media & Classical Conditioning: Media shapes attitudes by providing indirect information, while attitudes also form by associating experiences with positive or negative stimuli.

• Learning Processes: Attitudes are formed through operant conditioning, where rewards and punishments shape behaviour.
• Observational Learning: Children develop attitudes by observing and imitating the behaviour of parents, teachers, and peers.
• Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning influences the emotional aspects of attitudes.
• Genetic Influence: Studies show that identical twins share similar attitudes, even when raised in different environments.
• Further Research Needed: More studies are required to confirm the role of genetic factors in attitude formation, controlling for other variables.

• Two Types of Determinants: Attitude determinants are divided into structural and functional factors.
• Structural Determinants: These relate to objects, people, and institutions present in the environment.
• Functional Determinants: These determine how environmental facts are interpreted and incorporated into attitudes.
• Social and Cultural Influence: Social institutions and cultural variations play a major role in shaping attitudes.

• Attitudes and Needs: Attitudes form based on the satisfaction of basic needs and motives.
• Selective Formation: People develop attitudes towards things they need or desire.
• Cultural Influence: Culture and religion shape attitudes (e.g., food preferences).
• Motivational Factors: Physiological and social motives determine attitudes towards various objects.

• Language Shapes Attitudes: Language plays a key role in forming opinions, ideas, and attitudes.
• Indirect Influence: Without direct contact, people form attitudes based on the language used in the media.
• Mass Media Influence: Newspapers and media shape attitudes by using positive or negative language about individuals or groups.
• Pro and Anti Attitudes: The use of favourable or unfavourable words influences whether we develop positive or negative attitudes.

• Personality Influences Attitude: An individual’s personality plays a key role in shaping attitudes.
• Traits and Attitudes: Traits like introversion, extraversion, rigidity, and flexibility are linked with conservative or radical attitudes (Vetter & Dexter, 1930).
• Indirect Relationship: Personality does not directly decide specific attitudes; the relationship is complex and indirect.
• Basic Personality Structure: Studies (Adorno et al.) show that political and social attitudes often reflect deep personality patterns.
• Cultural Influence: Personality develops through needs, emotions, and cultural influences, which in turn affect attitudes.

• Shapes Personality and Behaviour: Attitudes influence behaviour, personality, and one’s position in society. Positive attitudes make a person sociable and acceptable.
• Source of Motivation: Attitudes motivate individuals to adjust to their environment and fulfil their needs.
• Adjustment Function (Katz, 1960): Attitudes help gain rewards and avoid punishment by adjusting to social expectations.
• Value-Expression Function: Attitudes allow individuals to express their personal values, beliefs, and self-concept (e.g., religious or patriotic feelings).
• Knowledge Function: Attitudes help organize and understand the world, providing clarity and cognitive consistency.
• Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes protect the individual from unpleasant realities by reducing anxiety and defending self-esteem.

• Importance of Attitude Change: Attitudes influence behaviour and social life; changing negative attitudes is necessary to reduce conflict and tension.
• Balance Theory (Heider): Attitude changes when there is imbalance in relationships (P–O–X triangle). People change their attitudes to restore psychological balance.
• Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger): When beliefs and behaviour conflict, people feel discomfort and change attitudes to restore consistency.
• Two-Step Model (Mohsin): Attitude change occurs through identification with a source, followed by imitation of the source’s changed behaviour.
• Nature of Existing Attitude: Strong, extreme, central, and highly accessible attitudes are harder to change than weak or less important ones.
• Source and Message Factors: Credibility, attractiveness of the source, emotional or rational appeal, and face-to-face communication influence attitude change.
• Target Characteristics: Personality traits such as openness, self-esteem, intelligence, and prejudice levels affect how easily a person’s attitude changes.

• A group is an organised system of two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who share common goals, roles, and norms.
• Groups create a sense of belongingness (“we-feeling”) and influence the socialisation, personality, and behaviour of individuals.
• A group is different from a crowd, audience, or category because it has structure, interdependence, stable relationships, and shared goals.
• Primary groups (e.g., family) have close relationships and strong influence, while secondary groups (e.g., school, clubs) are less intimate.
• Small groups (2–10 members) provide better interaction and understanding of behaviour compared to large groups.
• Teams are special types of groups where members have complementary skills, shared responsibility, and coordinated efforts.
• Social influence changes attitudes through three processes: compliance (conformity), identification (influence of groups), and internalisation (influence of persuasive sources).

• Public Agreement Only: In compliance, a person accepts an opinion publicly due to social pressure.
• No Inner Acceptance: There is no real internal belief or attitude change.
• Avoid Punishment or Gain Reward: People comply to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
• Temporary Change: When pressure is removed, the person returns to the original attitude.

• Identification: Attitudes are shaped by adopting the views of influential groups like family, peers, and school.
• Parental Influence: Parents pass on their attitudes, beliefs, and prejudices to their children.
• Bennington Study: College students shifted from conservative to liberal attitudes due to college influence.
• Reference Group: Attitudes change when a group’s norms become an individual’s reference group.
• Group Norms: Changing group norms is more effective in altering individual attitudes.
• Group Participation: Group involvement helps change attitudes better than individual experiences.
• Satisfaction & Relationships: Attitudes change when relationships with influential groups are no longer rewarding.

• Credibility of Communicator: Persuasion is more effective when the communicator is trustworthy, credible, and an expert in the subject.
• Message Strength: Persuasion is more successful if the communicator advocates a significant attitude change, but not too extreme.
• Two-Sided Communication: Presenting both sides of an issue (advantages and disadvantages) is more persuasive than one-sided communication.
• Effective Presentation: The way a message is worded, organized, and presented affects its effectiveness in changing attitudes.
• Emotional Appeals: Emotional appeals, like fear or aggression, work better on low-intelligence individuals than on well-informed people.
• Persuadability of Audience: Women, people with low self-esteem, and social isolates are more susceptible to persuasion.
• Role-Playing and Active Participation: Active participation (such as role-playing) is more effective at changing attitudes than passive listening or reading.

• Education makes people more liberal and less conservative.
• It reduces rigid thinking and increases open-mindedness.
• Educated individuals are more likely to change attitudes.
• Education influences acceptance of new ideas.

• Sudden, shocking, or painful experiences can cause abrupt attitude change.
• Such unexpected events may completely transform a person’s previous beliefs or views.
• Stanger (1948) referred to this sudden attitude change due to shock as “trauma.”

• Reduces Resistance: Role-playing helps in changing attitudes.
• Proven Effective: Studies showed it changed smoking attitudes and reduced prejudice.
• Emotional Involvement: Ego-involving situations produce real attitude change.
• Better than Passive Learning: More effective than just reading or listening.

• Need for Consistency: People want their thoughts and actions to be consistent.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Conflict between beliefs and behaviour creates mental discomfort.
• Attitude Change: To reduce discomfort, people change their attitudes to match their behaviour.
• Restore Balance: Reducing dissonance brings psychological balance.

• Break Psychological Balance: Attitudes change when the balance of positive and negative forces is disturbed.
• Reduce Ego Involvement: Less ego attachment makes attitude change easier.
• Flexible Personality: Flexible people change attitudes more easily than rigid ones.
• Early Development: Family and school should build healthy attitudes early in life.

• Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is its behavioural expression.
• Prejudice has cognitive (stereotype), emotional (hatred), and behavioural (discrimination) components.
• It creates social distance, conflict, and tension in society.
• Prejudices are learned through family, media, culture, and experience.
• Ingroup bias leads to favouring one’s own group and disliking others.
• Scapegoating blames minority groups for problems.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy and belief in a “kernel of truth” help prejudice continue

• Meaning of Prejudice: Prejudice means prejudgment or forming an opinion in advance without proper knowledge; it is a biased attitude toward a group.
• Group-Based Judgement: People are liked or disliked mainly because of their group membership, not because of individual qualities.
• Based on Stereotypes: Prejudice develops from stereotypes, myths, traditions, and oversimplified experiences.
• Can Be Positive or Negative: Though usually negative, prejudice can also be positive (favouring one’s own group – ingroup bias).
• Ingroup vs Outgroup: Prejudice is generally shown by the ingroup toward the outgroup, seeing the ingroup as superior.
• Unscientific and Biased: Prejudice lacks a rational or scientific basis and is often influenced by family and social norms.
• Functions/Effects: Prejudice creates social distance, conflict, tension, and blocks social progress and harmony.

• Prejudice is Learned: Children are not born prejudiced; they learn prejudice through family, society, and socialisation.
• Early Development: Prejudice begins in early childhood (around 2–3 years) through parental instructions and social norms.
• Clark & Clark Study (1947): Young children can recognise racial differences but do not show prejudice until influenced by social experiences.
• Role of Family and Society: Family, traditions, customs, myths, and beliefs strongly influence the growth of prejudice.
• Social Distance and Conflict: Greater social distance and intergroup conflict increase prejudice.
• Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Stereotypes and negative expectations contribute to the development and continuation of prejudice.
• Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors: Competition, urbanisation, class differences, and policies like reservations can increase prejudice between groups.

• Meaning: Gender prejudice refers to biased and stereotyped attitudes towards men or women based only on their sex.
• Women as a Disadvantaged Group: Despite forming nearly 50% of the population, women have often faced discrimination in power, leadership, jobs, and decision-making.
• Persistence of Stereotypes: Negative stereotypes about women are stronger and more common than those about men.
• Role of Socialisation: Gender prejudice continues due to age-old beliefs, cultural norms, and brainwashing through family and society.
• Role Differences: Stereotypes arise because men and women traditionally occupy different social roles.
• Impact on Society: Gender prejudice blocks the full development of women’s talents and harms social and national progress.
• Changing Trend: With education and social change, women are entering new fields, and gender stereotypes are gradually weakening.

• Sociological Factors: Low socio-economic status, cultural norms, and regional differences often increase prejudice.
• Personality Factors: Insecurity, anxiety, rigidity, intolerance of ambiguity, and authoritarian personality traits are linked with higher prejudice.
• Frustration and Scapegoating: Frustrated individuals may displace aggression onto weaker minority groups.
• Direct Intergroup Conflict: Competition over jobs, status, power, and resources leads to hostility and prejudice.
• Social Categorisation (Ingroup vs Outgroup): People divide society into “us” and “them,” favouring their own group and disliking others.
• Social Learning: Prejudice is learned from parents, peers, teachers, and media through reinforcement and imitation.
• Cognitive Factors: Stereotypes, illusory correlations, and perception of outgroup homogeneity strengthen and maintain prejudice.

• Frustration–Aggression: Frustration leads to aggression, which may be displaced onto minority groups (scapegoating).
• Personality Traits: Insecurity, anxiety, rigidity, and paranoia increase prejudice.
• Psychodynamic Factors: Repressed conflicts and projection cause hostility toward other groups.
• Crisis Situations: In uncertain times, people easily accept stereotypes and biased beliefs.
• Self-Esteem & Conformity: Prejudice helps protect self-image and group identity.
• Parents & Age: Prejudice is learned from parents; younger and educated people show less prejudice.
• Occupation & Religion: Traditional role beliefs and religious background may influence prejudice.

• Prejudice is part of cultural heritage and is learned by children.
• Urbanisation and job competition increase prejudice.
• Differences in language, religion, and customs cause prejudice.
• Prejudice grows when a group feels threatened and becomes a social norm.

• In India, prejudice exists mainly in the form of caste, religion, community, and gender bias, especially after independence.
• Western findings on prejudice are not fully applicable to India due to different social and cultural conditions.
• Murphy’s study showed that child-rearing practices and lack of conflict-resolution training may increase prejudice.
• Studies found strong Hindu–Muslim and intercaste prejudices, which increased after partition.
• Prejudice decreases with personal contact and better knowledge about other groups.
• Higher anxiety, authoritarianism, and religiosity are positively related to prejudice.
• Education and correct information about other religions reduce prejudice among students.

• Caste consciousness develops early, faster in boys, rural children, and upper castes (Singh et al., 1960).
• Education does not always reduce prejudice; in some cases, educated groups showed stronger caste stereotypes (Premsarkar).
• Intercaste tension and social distance are highest between Brahmins and Harijans (Singh, 1967).
• Studies show male students generally have more prejudice than females (Chatterjee, Mohanty).
• Mohanty (1980) found that low-caste students showed higher religious, caste, and sex prejudices than high-caste students.
• No major difference was found between Hindus and Muslims in overall prejudice levels in Mohanty’s study.
• Prejudice develops slowly through childhood socialisation, so early study and control are important.

• Education, information, and propaganda from the school level can create awareness and reduce prejudice.
• Intergroup contact reduces prejudice when groups interact with equal status, close and meaningful contact, and cooperative activities.
• Laws and political measures (e.g., anti-discrimination laws) help control discriminatory practices.
• Improving the socio-economic conditions of minority and disadvantaged groups reduces frustration and tension.
• Changing motivational and emotional factors (reducing frustration, insecurity, and unmet needs) helps in controlling prejudice.
• Mass media and social organisations can spread positive messages and promote unity in diversity.
• Multiple methods together (role playing, modelling, counselling, group discussion) are more effective than using a single method.

• Changing beliefs and attitudes about minorities can reduce prejudice and discrimination.
• Persuasion, demonstration, and propaganda can help modify prejudiced views.
• Propaganda may sometimes distort facts or hide motives, so it must be used carefully.
• Understanding group needs and interpersonal relations is essential for reducing prejudice effectively.

• Meaning: Caste stereotypes are fixed and generalised beliefs about people based on caste.
• Upper–Lower Bias: Upper castes were viewed positively; lower castes were given negative traits.
• Discrimination: Lower castes faced untouchability and social restrictions.
• Gradual Change: Education and intercaste marriages are reducing caste stereotypes.
• Study: Rath and Sircar (1960) studied caste stereotypes in India.

• Meaning: Gender stereotypes are fixed, often false beliefs about how males and females should behave, affecting real understanding of individuals.
• Examples: Men are seen as strong and dominant; women as emotional and submissive—these generalizations limit personal growth and opportunities.
• Impact: Stereotyping leads to discrimination, the loss of talent, unequal treatment, and slows socio-economic development.
• Change is Possible: Education, awareness, training, and social change can reduce stereotypes and promote gender equality.
• Role of Society: Parents, teachers, and media must avoid spreading biased ideas and support equal opportunities for both genders.

• Social Distance: Differences in religion, language, food, and customs create community stereotypes.
• Cause of Conflict: Stereotypes lead to prejudice, communal riots, and group tensions.
• Murphy’s Study: Child-rearing practices and poor conflict resolution increase stereotypes and prejudice.
• Political Influence: Events like the creation of Pakistan worsened Hindu-Muslim attitudes (Adinarayan, 1953).
• Strong Social Impact: Stereotypes affect judgments, relationships, traditions, and social behaviour.

• Stereotypes Persist: Negative stereotypes are hard to change and often persist over time, though they may weaken.
• Fading Effect: While stereotypes decrease in frequency, they still remain over time (e.g., Gilbert’s study).
• Education & Knowledge: Education and scientific knowledge help reduce biased concepts and weaken stereotypes.
• Intercultural Contact: Increased communication and contact between groups promote change in stereotypes.

• Goring's Study: Stereotypes influenced artists' judgments of criminals based on their photographs.
• Katz & Barly (1932): College students consistently attributed negative traits to outgroups (e.g., Negroes) and positive traits to their ingroup (Americans).
• Ethnocentrism (Summer, 1906): Ethnocentrism leads to seeing one’s own group as superior and others as inferior, fostering stereotypes.
• Social Distance & Stereotypes (Sherif, 1945): Closer group relationships lead to more favourable traits being attributed, while social distance results in more negative traits.
• Mohanty’s Tension-Contact Study (1968): More contact between groups reduces tension and hostility, breaking stereotypes.
• Gender Differences in Stereotypes (Mohanty, 1968): Male and female students differed in hostility towards certain linguistic groups.
• UNESCO Studies in India: Studies on national, caste, and linguistic stereotypes revealed both favourable and derogatory traits assigned to different groups.