Revision: Stress and Stress Management Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

Hans Selye, the father of modern stress research, defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand.”

The word stress is derived from the Latin word ‘Stringi’ which means ‘to be drawn tight’. According to Richard Lazarus ‘stress is a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed the personal and social resource that he/she is able to mobilize.’

According to Coleman (1981), "Projections probably develop from our own early realisation that putting the blame on others for our own failures, unethical thoughts, and misdeeds helps us to avoid social approval and punishment."

• The mechanism by which one instinct is hidden from awareness by its opposite is called reaction formation.
• In the words of Brown (1940), "unconscious conflict may therefore be resolved by behavioural denial of it."
• According to Coleman (1981), Reaction formation, like repression, has adjustive value in helping us to maintain socially approved behaviour and to avoid facing unacceptable desires with the consequent self-devaluation that would be involved. Stress is thus managed by the ego by showing opposite behaviour.

Positive health is the state of complete physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being. It is not merely the absence of disease. It comprises high quality of personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life, self-regard, mastery of life skills, and resilience to stress, trauma, and change.

Health promotion refers to any event, process, or activity that facilitates the protection or improvement of the health status of individuals, groups, communities, or populations. Its objective is to prolong and improve the quality of life.

According to Cicarelli and Meyer (2007), wellness is the practice of behaviour and lifestyle choices on how to promote both physical and mental health.

According to the WHO, life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life.

• Stress is a state of mental and physical tension when demands exceed coping ability.
• Stressors are internal or external events (like exams, conflict, loss) that disturb balance and block goals.
• Modern life increases stress due to competition, pollution, insecurity, and disasters.
• Moderate stress improves alertness and performance, but too much stress harms health and efficiency.
• Eustress is positive stress, while distress is harmful and long-lasting stress.

• Stress is a state of physical and mental tension when demands disturb a person’s balance.
• Eustress and Distress – Moderate stress (eustress) improves performance, but excessive or long-term stress (distress) harms health and efficiency.
• Stress and Strain – Stress refers to external pressure; strain is the internal effect like anxiety or illness.
• Cognitive Appraisal – Stress depends on how we interpret the event and judge our ability to cope with it.
• Types of Stressors – Stressors may be environmental, social, or psychological, and may be short-term or long-term.
• Stress Reactions – Stress causes physical (hormonal changes), emotional (fear, anger), behavioural (fight or flight), and cognitive (worry, poor concentration) responses.

• Stress is a process that begins with environmental stressors and ends in coping responses.
• Stressors differ in intensity, duration, and predictability.
• Individual differences (personality, past experience, tolerance level) affect how stress is felt.
• Appraisal and resources (skills, health, social support) determine the level of stress.
• Stress management may require coping skills, social support, or professional help.

• Stress can be experienced at biological, psychological, individual, and group levels.
• Pneumonia viruses are an example of biological stress; guilt is an example of psychological stress.
• Wars and economic depressions create stress for both individuals and large groups.
• The hypothalamus starts two stress pathways: one releases catecholamines from the adrenal glands, and the other, through the pituitary gland, releases corticosteroids to provide energy.
• Emotional reactions (fear, anger, sadness) and behavioural and cognitive responses help a person master, reduce, or tolerate stress.

• Stress is the pressure a person feels; stressors are events (environmental, psychological, social) that cause stress.
• Stressors may arise from relationships, work, finances, illness, legal issues, or disasters.
• Severe events like abuse, parental divorce, death, or chronic conflict strongly affect adjustment.
• People react differently to the same stressor due to personality, age, and early upbringing.
• Stress can lead to adjustment problems and cause physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural changes.

• Stressors are events or situations that cause stress.
• Most stressors are negative and can disturb adjustment.
• Positive stressors are pleasant events that cause stress but help in adjustment and performance.
• Some amount of stress is necessary for learning, performance, and meeting deadlines.
• Positive stressors can create strong emotions and bodily changes, but generally motivate and inspire the person.

• Intense stressors can lead to overload, making coping difficult.
• Stress can cause conflict, especially when a situation has both positive and negative aspects (approach–avoidance).
• Uncontrollable and unpredictable stressors feel more threatening.
• Chronic stress is linked to psychosomatic disorders like hypertension, ulcers, asthma, migraine, and skin issues.
• Wolff identified different reactor types (e.g., stomach, pulse, nose) based on individual physical stress responses.
• Alexander's one-to-one stress-disease links are not widely accepted; stress–illness connections are more complex and vary by individual.

• Burnout is extreme physical and mental exhaustion caused by long-term stress.
• It leads to physical problems like headache, back pain, and tiredness.
• It causes psychological effects such as irritability, anger, and sadness.
• Work quality decreases and relationships may suffer.
• Proper rest, planning, and social support help prevent burnout.

• GAS: Three‑stage bodily response to stress (Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion).
• Alarm: Immediate fight‑or‑flight reaction with very high physiological arousal.
• Resistance: Continued, moderate‑high arousal as the body attempts to cope and adapt.
• Exhaustion: Resources are depleted; the person’s resistance drops and illness risk rises.
• Perception of threat, controllability, personality type, and social support all influence how strongly stress affects health.

• Selye’s GAS focuses on bodily reactions and ignores cognitive appraisal.​
• Stress depends on how we interpret a situation, not only on the situation itself.​
• Primary appraisal: Is the event important and threatening?
• Secondary appraisal: Do I have enough resources to cope?​
• When a situation is seen as threatening and coping is seen as inadequate, stress is experienced; otherwise, stress may not be felt.

• Stress is commonly grouped into three types: physical and environmental, psychological, and social.
• Physical and environmental stress comes from bodily strain and surrounding conditions (including natural disasters).
• Psychological stress arises from internal thoughts, feelings, and mental conflicts, such as frustration and internal pressures.
• Social stress arises from social events, relationships, and everyday interactions with others.
• In real life, these types of stress often occur together and influence each other.

• Stress Sources: Daily issues (like delays, fights, money) can cause stress if seen as important.
• Life Events: Big changes (e.g., moving, breakups) disturb life. Stress is measured using event scales such as the Holmes-Rahe and Indian PSLES.
• Life Events & Illness: More events may link to illness, but the connection is weak and depends on support and other factors.
• Daily Hassles: Small, frequent problems (e.g., traffic, noise) often affect mental health more than big events.
• Trauma: Serious events (e.g., accidents, disasters) can cause lasting stress like anxiety and flashbacks; long-term effects need help.

• Stressful life events that demand major adjustment are called life event stressors.
• Major events have higher stress values, but many minor events together can also cause considerable stress.
• More stress points are associated with a higher chance of becoming seriously ill, showing a positive link between stress and illness.
• Chronic, long-lasting stressors are especially harmful because they can weaken immunity and increase vulnerability to diseases.

• Stressful life events that demand major adjustment are called life event stressors.
• Major events have higher stress values, but many minor events together can also cause considerable stress.
• More stress points are associated with a higher chance of becoming seriously ill, showing a positive link between stress and illness.
• Chronic, long-lasting stressors are especially harmful because they can weaken immunity and increase vulnerability to diseases.

• Frustration is a major source of stress and can be physical, social, or internal.
• A threat to survival, self-worth, or social status produces high stress and anxiety.
• Minor daily hassles, though small, are frequent and strongly related to psychological problems.
• Work-related stress arises from overload, underload, role conflict, unfair appraisal, and poor work conditions.
• Balanced workload, fair systems, social support, and counselling can reduce the negative effects of workplace stress.

• Internal stress comes from inner pressure, personality traits/types, and internal conflicts.
• Inner pressure arises from the self-ideal, conscience, and level of aspiration.
• Unrealistically high goals that exceed one’s abilities cause strong inner stress.
• Competitive environments increase pressure to succeed, leading to discomfort.
• Conflict between desires and moral values can lead to guilt and increased stress.
• Certain personality traits (e.g., perfectionism, anxiety) increase vulnerability to stress.

• Personality (introvert–extrovert) and attitude (optimist–pessimist) strongly affect stress response.
• Optimism supports better coping, health, and resilience under stress.
• Pessimism is linked with avoidance and higher stress impact.
• Flexible coping using multiple strategies and good support systems increases stress tolerance.

• Personality and Stress Response: Type A, B, and C personalities influence how people react to stress and their chances of developing stress-related illnesses.
• Type A Personality: Ambitious, competitive, and always in a hurry; often stressed and at higher risk for heart diseases.
• Type B Personality: Calm, patient, and flexible; better at managing stress and less likely to develop stress-related health issues.
• Type C Personality: Cooperative and peace-loving but suppresses emotions; may have weaker immunity and possible links to cancer (not confirmed).
• Other Influencing Factors: High-status jobs often show more Type A behaviour. Emotional intelligence helps reduce stress, while some introverts may experience greater internal stress when suppressing emotions.

• Physical Health: Stress can cause or worsen many health problems, such as ulcers, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, and weakened immunity.
• Psychological Impact: Stress affects emotions (e.g., mood swings, anxiety), thinking (e.g., poor concentration), and behaviour (e.g., sleep issues, substance use).
• Examination Stress: High exam stress can reduce performance by causing anxiety, negative thoughts, and poor focus.
• Burnout: Prolonged stress leads to physical and mental exhaustion, lowering energy, mood, and health—called burnout.
• Lifestyle & Immunity: Chronic stress weakens immunity and leads to unhealthy habits; good diet, exercise, and social support improve health.

• Cardiovascular disorders affect the heart and blood vessels and are influenced by emotional stress.
• Emotional stress, like worry or conflict, can cause or worsen these disorders.
• Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is a common stress-linked heart condition that may cause anxiety.
• Hypertension, tachycardia, and angina are major stress-related heart problems.
• These disorders impact both physical health and mental well-being, causing issues like fear or depression.

• CHD is caused by blocked coronary arteries, reducing blood supply to the heart.
• Emotional stress speeds up blood clotting and contributes to CHD.
• Worry, anxiety, irritation, and excitement can increase heart palpitations and may obstruct the heart's arteries.
• Macht’s study shows calm people have slower clotting, while nervous people have faster clotting.
• Autopsy studies on young soldiers show early coronary disease linked to severe stress.
• Kisker’s report shows high CHD deaths among physicians, indicating occupational stress.
• Type A behaviour pattern (continuous pressure, little relaxation) is associated with higher CHD risk.

• Meaning: Hypertension is persistently high blood pressure, common after 40–45 years, and a major cause of strokes and heart diseases.
• Emotional Stress: Stress causes blood vessels to narrow, making the heart work harder and increasing blood pressure.
• Kidneys & Renin: Reduced blood flow to the kidneys releases renin, which further raises blood pressure and may damage the kidneys.
• Silent Nature: Hypertension often shows no clear symptoms; sometimes headache, tiredness, or dizziness occur.
• Psychological Factors: Chronic stress and blocked emotions (such as anger) can contribute to high blood pressure, especially in stressful urban environments.

• Meaning: Tension headache is a common, simple headache caused mainly by emotional stress.
• Psychosomatic Nature: Psychological factors like worry and anxiety produce physical pain, so it is considered a psychosomatic disorder.
• Role of Stress: Emotional stress causes muscles of the scalp, neck, and shoulders to tighten.
• Mechanism: Prolonged muscle contraction and related blood‑flow changes lead to dull, pressing head pain.
• Typical Features: Pain feels like a tight band around the head, is mild to moderate, and usually not throbbing.

• Asthma is a long-term disease where airways narrow, causing breathing problems.
• Main symptoms: wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath.
• Stress & emotions like anxiety or anger can trigger or worsen attacks.
• Psychosomatic link: Some asthma cases are affected by emotional conflict and stress.
• Treatment includes medication, as well as stress management and relaxation techniques.

• Meaning: A Peptic ulcer is an open sore in the stomach or duodenum caused by excess acid and pepsin.
• Symptoms: Common symptoms include burning stomach pain related to meals, nausea, vomiting, and bleeding in severe cases.
• Causes: Both organic factors and psychological factors, like worry, anxiety, and repressed anger, contribute to ulcer formation.
• Role of Stress: Chronic stress and unexpressed emotions increase gastric acid secretion and damage the stomach lining.
• Psychosomatic Nature: Peptic ulcer is a psychosomatic disorder; effective treatment needs medical care along with stress and emotion management.

• Colitis is a painful inflammatory disorder of the colon with symptoms such as cramps, diarrhoea, constipation, and bleeding.
• The two types mentioned are mucous colitis and ulcerative colitis.
• Ulcerative colitis often becomes a chronic condition once it appears.
• Colitis is considered a psychophysiologic disorder because emotional stress is closely linked to the onset and aggravation of symptoms.
• Stressful life events like bereavement, exam failure and unemployment can worsen symptoms.
• Engel (1975) emphasised the role of stressful family relationships and dependency on parents in the development and course of colitis.

• Hypertension, stress, and diabetes are strongly related.
• Modern lifestyle stress increases diabetes cases.
• India may become the diabetic capital of the world.
• Higher blood pressure is linked to higher blood sugar.
• Diabetes is a silent killer caused by genetic and environmental factors.

• High or prolonged stress generally reduces performance in studies, work, and daily life.
• Stress interferes with attention, concentration, organisation of thoughts, and decision-making.
• A lot of energy is spent coping with stress, leaving less for the main task.
• Under stress, both quality and quantity of performance tend to suffer.
• Managing stress is important for maintaining effective and consistent performance.

• Stress can both improve and reduce performance, depending on its level.
• Very low stress and very high stress are usually linked with poor performance.
• A moderate amount of stress is generally most helpful for performance.
• The effect of stress on performance varies from person to person and from situation to situation, so it should not be overgeneralised.

• Stress affects all ages and can lead to mental health issues.
• More people are seeking help from psychologists and psychiatrists.
• Stress increases the risk of mental problems like depression and anxiety.
• Common problems: depression, anxiety, panic attacks, insomnia, OCD.
• Example: A stressed student may face anxiety, sleeplessness, and sadness.

• Stress can be managed through a healthy lifestyle, including exercise, a balanced diet, and proper planning of daily routines.
• Positive thinking, realistic goals, and the use of defence mechanisms such as rationalisation and sublimation help reduce emotional stress.
• Personality traits such as hardiness, detachment, and courage (fortitude) enhance the ability to cope with difficult situations.
• Support from family, friends, and society provides emotional strength and reduces loneliness during stressful times.
• Hobbies, recreation, laughter, and developing stress tolerance from childhood improve mental balance and reduce anxiety.

• Biofeedback helps people control stress-related body functions like heart rate and muscle tension using electronic devices.
• Sensors show real-time signals (graphs or sounds) to help recognise bodily changes.
• People learn to reduce stress by practising relaxation while watching feedback.
• Training involves awareness, control in calm settings, and applying it in real life.
• It is useful for headaches, high blood pressure, and improving overall stress control.

• Relaxation reduces muscle tension and mental stress, supported by rest, short breaks, and proper sleep.
• Progressive muscle relaxation eases stress by relaxing body parts in sequence, from feet to face.
• Regular physical activity, such as walking, yoga, or cycling, lowers stress, improves mood, and boosts concentration.
• Laughter reduces stress by relaxing muscles and works similarly to JPMR through muscle tightening and release.
• Laughter clubs, especially helpful for older adults, promote group laughter, improving both mental and physical well-being.

• Avoidance and Denial: Ignoring stress through procrastination or distractions increases anxiety and workload over time.
• Unhealthy Substance Use: Using alcohol, tobacco, or excessive caffeine for relief worsens stress and harms physical and mental health.
• Emotional and Physical Suppression: Hiding emotions, isolating, or oversleeping may reduce discomfort briefly but increase loneliness and unresolved issues.
• Destructive Actions: Behaviours like emotional eating, anger outbursts, negative self-talk, or gambling provide temporary relief but harm well-being and relationships.
• Short-Term Relief, Long-Term Harm: Ineffective stress coping methods offer quick comfort but worsen stress and lead to serious personal and health problems.

• Ineffective stress responses like ignoring problems, giving up, or reacting with anger increase stress and prevent real solutions.
• Personality traits such as low confidence, pessimism, and low emotional intelligence can lead to unhealthy coping methods.
• Overuse of defence mechanisms like repression or regression hides feelings but weakens emotional strength and problem-solving.
• Prolonged stress from poor coping can cause physical issues (e.g., headaches, sleep problems) and psychological issues (e.g., anxiety, low self-esteem).
• Effective responses involve facing stress with planning and support, while ineffective ones worsen stress and create further problems.

• Projection is a defence mechanism where a person attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
• It helps the ego reduce anxiety by shifting inner conflict to the outside world.
• Projection happens when the ego can no longer repress or deny unwanted impulses.
• It may temporarily reduce stress, but it avoids dealing with the real inner conflict.
• Examples include blaming others for one’s own feelings, like saying “He hates me” instead of “I hate him.”

• Displacement is a defence mechanism where emotions are redirected from a threatening source to a safer substitute to reduce anxiety.
• When an impulse is blocked, the ego redirects it to a less threatening outlet, providing temporary relief.
• Displacement can be external, self-directed, or adaptive through sublimation, where urges are channelled positively.
• This mechanism appears in psychological disorders like phobias, OCD, paranoia, and psychotic depression.
• Common examples include expressing work frustration at home, students blaming themselves after failure, or professionals using energy productively.

• Reaction formation is a defence mechanism in which unacceptable unconscious desires are hidden by opposite behaviour.
• The ego reduces anxiety by exaggerating socially acceptable actions against disturbing impulses.
• It helps a person avoid guilt and maintain social approval, especially in obsessional neurosis.
• Long‑term use creates rigid personality traits and prevents healthy coping and growth.
• Examples include denying exam failure, blaming others, overeating under stress, or rigid rule‑following.

• Positive Health: It means complete well-being—physical, mental, social, and spiritual—not just being free from illness. It includes strong relationships, life purpose, and stress resilience.
• Health Promotion: Activities and efforts that help improve and protect health at individual and community levels, aiming to enhance life quality and longevity.
• Wellness and Life Skills: Wellness is making healthy lifestyle choices. Life skills (like communication and rational thinking) help us deal effectively with daily challenges.
• Key Influencers of Health: Regular exercise, a balanced diet, self-care, and strong relationships support good health. Avoiding habits like procrastination and perfectionism is also important.
• Positive Mindset: Having a stress-resistant personality and optimistic thinking helps handle problems better and promotes mental and emotional strength.

• Stress gradually damages the heart by raising cholesterol and blood pressure.
• It causes physical, emotional, and behavioural problems.
• Anger increases stress and harms health.
• Perfectionism leads to irritation and more stress.
• Controlling anger and overlooking small issues helps reduce stress.

• Engage in hobbies, social activities, and new interests to avoid boredom and stress.
• Maintain a positive and optimistic attitude; smile and enjoy life.
• Do not brood over the past or worry about the future; live in the present.
• Forgive others, avoid grumbling, and practice gratitude for peace of mind.