Revision: Psychological Disorders and Psychotherapy Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

Distress refers to behaviour that is unpleasant and upsetting to the person and to others.

Dysfunction refers to behaviour that interferes with the person’s ability to carry out daily activities in a constructive way.

Thus Baron defines mental disorders as “Disturbances of an individual’s behaviour or psychological functioning that are not culturally expected and that lead to psychological distress, behavioural disability and/or impaired overall functioning.”

"The behaviour which causes people significant distress and/or causes them to harm themselves and others, and/or harms their ability to function in daily life is considered abnormal" - Cicarelli and Meyer, 2007

A syndrome is a cluster or group of symptoms that are generally found together in a psychological disorder.

Schizophrenia is a label given to a group of psychoses in which deterioration of functioning is marked by severe distortion of thought, perception, and mood; by bizarre behaviour and by social withdrawal.

Schizophrenics perceive things that are not there. Such perceptions occurring in the absence of any appropriate external stimulus are called hallucinations.

The act of engaging in purposeless behaviours repetitively over long periods of time is called stereotyped acts.

• When a person feels nervous or worried without any obvious reason for a long time such that it starts interfering with the daily life, it is called Anxiety Disorder.
• Ross defines anxiety disorder as a series of symptoms which arises from the faulty adaptation to the stresses and strains of life.
• The term anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.

A panic attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of a particular stimulus are present.

Panic disorder is characterized by a sudden attack of unexplainable terror like fear for spider, rat or cockroaches.

A phobia is a morbid or pathological fear which the patient realizes to be absurd but nevertheless is unable to explain and overcome it.

It refers to excessive fear of situations in which a person might be evaluated and perhaps embarrassed.

Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic.

Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again.

Obsession is an unpleasant and unwanted thought that keeps coming up to mind on and off inspite of a person's efforts to resist.

A compulsive disorder refers to an act or a series of acts a person feels compelled to perform repeatedly, knowing that it is all nonsense.

According to Duke and Nowicke (1979), a compulsion may be viewed as a felt need to carry out certain admittedly senseless sequences of actions to reduce anxiety disorder.

Mood disorders are disorders of emotion of sufficient intensity and duration which require immediate medical and psychological attention.

• The disorder in which the individual experiences extreme feelings of sadness as well as guilt for at least two weeks, is called Depressive Disorder.
• Major depressive disorder is defined as a period of depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in most activities, together with other symptoms which may include a change in body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour, and thoughts of death and suicide.

It is a mood disorder in which an individual experiences very wide swings of mood from deep depression to wild elation.

In bipolar psychoses, mania and depression usually occur in a circular form. It is therefore called cyclic psychoses.

Dissociative disorders refer to profound losses of identity, memory, intense feelings of unreality, a sense of being depersonalized (Separate from oneself), and uncertainty about one's own identity (Baron-2004).

Dissociative amnesia refers to total or partial, selective memory loss which is not due to any visible organic changes.

Dual personality or dissociative identity disorder, in short, is a dissociative reaction to frustration and stress in which the person shows two or more types of personality patterns.

Disorders of extreme and inflexible personality traits that are distressing to the persons who have them or cause them problems in school, at work, or in interpersonal relations are called personality disorders, according to Baron (2004).

According to DSM IV, avoidant personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to negative evaluation, excessive shrinking from contact with unfamiliar people and strangers, so as to interfere with social functioning in peer relationships, etc.

Histrionic personality disorder refers to a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking.

• It is an eating disorder in which individuals engage in recurrent episodes to binge eating followed by some form of purging.
• Bulimia nervosa is an episodic, uncontrolled, and rapid ingestion or eating of large quantities of food over a short period of time, which is called binge eating, followed by some kind of temporary behaviour to prevent weight gain, like vomiting after eating, fasting, misuse of laxatives, and certain exercises, which are potentially harmful to the person's health. (Baron-2004)

Behavioural disorders refer to a category of mental disorders that are characterized by persistent or repetitive behaviours that are uncommon among children of the same age, inappropriate, and disrupt others and activities around the child.

• Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social, and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed thought processes, strange perceptions, unusual emotional states, and motor abnormalities.
• Schizophreniais a breakdown of integrated personality function, withdrawal from reality, emotional blocking, distortion, and disturbances of thought and behaviour.
• It is a complex disorder or a cluster of disorders characterized by fragmentation of basic psychological disorders like attention, perception, thought, emotion, behaviour, social relationships, and motivation.

In schizophrenics, there is an absence of reactions and behaviour of normal persons. This is called negative symptoms.

The special relationship between the client and the therapist is known as the therapeutic relationship or alliance.

Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the one seeking treatment, or the client, and the one who treats, or the therapist.

Persons with behavioural problems can be given a token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected and exchanged for a reward such as an outing for the patient or a treat for the child. This is known as a token economy.

Modelling is the procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role model.

According to Duke and Nowicki (1979), "Behaviour modification is a mode of individual treatment of psychological disturbances in which basic rules of learning discovered and tested in the laboratory are applied to the solution of human problems."

Token economy is a technique of treatment under which mental patients staying in hospitals are asked to show certain desirable behaviour and rewarded through tokens if they do the same.

In a generalized sense, rehabilitation means restoration of the organism to a good and stable condition, restoring his previous rights, comforts, facilities, and privileges which he normally enjoyed before he was ill, wayward, or mentally challenged.

• Modern life stress such as competition, unemployment, disasters, and rapid social changes increases psychological disorders.
• Psychological problems are rising due to changes in society, culture, and lifestyle.
• Abnormal behaviour means deviation from normal behaviour.
• Normal and abnormal behaviour differ in kind, not just in degree.
• Abnormal behaviour shows poor adjustment to environment and situations.

• The statistical perspective defines abnormal behaviour as infrequent or rare behaviour in a population.
• According to this view, normal and abnormal differ in degree, not in kind, and are shown on a bell-shaped curve.
• Most people fall in the middle (normal range), while very low or very high extremes are considered abnormal or superior.
• Normality and abnormality are relative concepts, and there is no clear-cut boundary between them.
• Abnormal behaviour refers to actions that are socially inappropriate, culturally unexpected, and cause distress or poor adjustment.

• Biological factors alone cannot explain all mental disorders; psychological factors are also important.
• The behavioural model says abnormal behaviour is learned through experience, such as fear after a traumatic event.
• The cognitive model explains that faulty thinking patterns can cause anxiety, guilt, and low self-esteem.
• The psychodynamic perspective states that unconscious conflicts and repressed feelings can lead to mental disorders.
• A single negative experience (e.g., public humiliation) can create long-lasting fear and avoidance behaviour.

• Socio-cultural factors like poverty, unemployment, low education, and prejudice can cause mental disorders.
• Negative and stressful environments increase the risk of mental health problems.
• Children who lack love, support, and basic needs (food, education) may develop stress and anxiety.
• Child labour and early life stress harm mental health and coping ability.
• Lack of social support and poor social conditions can lead to mental disorganization.

• Abnormal behaviour is explained by the 4 Ds – Deviance, Distress, Dysfunction, and Danger.
• Deviance: Behaviour that is extreme, unusual, or against social norms (considering cultural differences).
• Distress: Behaviour that causes personal suffering, anxiety, or emotional discomfort for a long time.
• Dysfunction: Behaviour that interferes with daily activities and normal functioning in life.
• Danger: Behaviour that harms or threatens the safety of oneself or others.

• Classification of psychological disorders is necessary for proper diagnosis and specific treatment.
• Mental disorders are classified based on symptoms and syndromes (a group of related symptoms).
• Proper diagnosis helps in understanding causes and selecting correct treatment.
• Two major classification systems are ICD-10 (by WHO) and DSM (by American Psychiatric Association).
• ICD-10 is used worldwide and includes both physical and mental disorders.
• DSM (currently DSM-5) provides detailed criteria for diagnosis and is widely used by psychologists and psychiatrists.
• DSM classification is descriptive in nature and focuses on patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.

• DSM-IV is a classification system developed by the American Psychiatric Association for diagnosing mental disorders.
• It classifies disorders into many categories such as childhood disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, and personality disorders.
• Major groups include Schizophrenia, Mood Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Somatoform Disorders, Dissociative Disorders, Eating Disorders, and Substance-Related Disorders.
• It also includes disorders related to sleep, impulse control, sexual and gender identity, and adjustment problems.
• DSM-IV provides clear symptoms and diagnostic criteria for each disorder.
• It gives additional background information, including biological, age, sex, and cultural factors.
• The system helps psychiatrists and psychologists in accurate diagnosis and proper treatment planning.

• DSM-IV uses a five-axis system to classify mental disorders for a more detailed and complete diagnosis.
• Axis I includes major clinical disorders like schizophrenia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and substance-related disorders.
• Axis II covers personality disorders (e.g., antisocial, borderline, narcissistic) and mental retardation, which are long-term conditions.
• Axis III and IV consider general medical conditions and psychosocial/environmental problems (family, social, economic, occupational issues) affecting the disorder.
• Axis V measures overall functioning using the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale, which helps in treatment planning and predicting outcomes.

• DSM-IV excels in description, fails in explanation of causes.
• Labelling creates stigma and clinical bias against patients.
• Gender bias reflects societal stereotypes, not biological reality.
• The categorical system ignores the symptom severity spectrum.
• The dimensional approach offers a more accurate disorder assessment.
• Universal framework justifies continued DSM-IV usage despite flaws.

• According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), abnormal behaviour must have clinical significance, causing distress, disability, or dysfunction in the individual.
• The behaviour should not be culturally accepted or culturally appropriate.
• Abnormal behaviour is maladaptive, meaning it creates problems for the person, family, or society.
• Culture plays an important role in deciding whether a behaviour is abnormal or not.
• The behaviour must be continuous, persistent, and serious, not temporary like normal emotional reactions.

• DSM-V is a standard classification manual used in abnormal psychology and psychiatry to define and describe mental disorders.
• A condition is called a mental disorder when it involves disturbances in behaviour, thoughts, or emotions, along with personal distress and impairment.
• The symptoms must arise from internal dysfunctions with biological or psychological causes.
• Axis I includes major clinical disorders like depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and substance dependence.
• Axis II covers personality disorders and intellectual disabilities, which are long-term and affect overall functioning.
• Axis III and IV consider general medical conditions and psycho-social/environmental stressors that influence the disorder.
• Axis V (GAF) gives a score from 1–100 to assess overall functioning; lower scores indicate more severe problems.

• Anxiety disorder is a long-lasting excessive worry or fear that interferes with daily life.
• GAD involves unrealistic and persistent worry with symptoms like restlessness, headache, and rapid heartbeat.
• A phobia is an intense and irrational fear of specific objects or situations, leading to avoidance.
• Panic disorder causes sudden panic attacks with breathlessness and fear of losing control or dying.
• Severe anxiety shows symptoms like sweating, dizziness, tremors, nausea, and sleep problems.

• Anxiety is the body’s fight-or-flight response without real danger, causing physical and psychological symptoms.
• Common symptoms include sweating, rapid heartbeat, dizziness, worry, tension, and poor concentration.
• Panic disorder involves sudden, intense fear attacks with breathlessness and fear of dying or losing control.
• A phobia is an irrational and persistent fear of harmless objects or situations that interferes with daily life.
• Normal fear is logical and manageable, but a phobia is paralysing and uncontrollable.

• Obsession is an unwanted and unpleasant thought that repeatedly comes to mind despite efforts to resist it.
• These thoughts are intrusive, uncontrollable, and cause distress.
• The person knows the thoughts are irrational but cannot stop them.
• Common themes include contamination, doubt, aggression, and sexual or religious ideas.

• Compulsive Disorder involves repeated actions that a person feels forced to perform, even though they know the actions are irrational.
• Compulsive acts are performed to reduce anxiety caused by obsessive thoughts.
• Common compulsions include repeated hand washing, checking locks, counting, ordering, cleaning, and hoarding objects.
• These behaviours are persistent and interfere with normal daily activities.
• Obsessions and compulsions often occur together, but sometimes a person may have only obsessive thoughts.
• Mild obsessive-compulsive traits can help in jobs requiring accuracy and attention to detail (e.g., cashier, engineer, accountant).
• Severe compulsive behaviour can cause problems in jobs requiring public interaction and may need proper treatment.

• Mood disorders involve extreme and long-lasting emotional changes that disturb normal life.
• They are more intense than normal mood swings and may include deep sadness or hopelessness.
• They require immediate medical and psychological treatment.
• The main types are depressive disorders (the most common), bipolar disorders, and other rare mood disorders.

• Depressive Disorder involves extreme sadness and loss of interest lasting at least two weeks.
• Major Depressive Disorder requires five or more symptoms like sleep/appetite changes, fatigue, guilt, poor concentration, and suicidal thoughts.
• Normal sadness is temporary, but depression is long-lasting and seriously affects daily life.
• Bipolar Disorder involves mood swings between mania and depression, often in cycles.
• Mania shows high energy, less sleep, rapid speech, and risky behaviour.
• Risk factors include genetics, stressful life events, and higher risk in women.

• Depression is a serious mental disorder caused by biological and psychological factors.
• Biological causes include genetics, brain chemistry imbalance, and stress-triggered mood changes (stronger genetic role in bipolar disorder).
• Cognitive causes include learned helplessness and Beck’s Negative Cognitive Triad (negative views of self, world, and future).
• Emotional & cultural factors include guilt and shame, which vary across cultures and societies.
• The psychoanalytic view links bipolar disorder to unresolved conflicts, low self-esteem, and relationship difficulties.

• Dissociative disorders affect memory, identity, and sense of reality.
• People may feel detached, confused about identity, or forget important events.
• Main types: Amnesia, Fugue, DID, and Depersonalization/Derealization.
• They are usually caused by severe stress or childhood trauma.
• They are not due to brain damage and occur across cultures.

• Dissociative Amnesia – Memory loss without brain damage, usually caused by trauma or stress.
• Memory loss may be localised or generalised, and the person may not recognise familiar people.
• Dissociative Fugue – Memory loss with loss of identity; person leaves home and may assume a new identity.
• Fugue is a defence mechanism against severe psychological stress.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) – Two or more distinct personalities in one person, often linked to early trauma.

• Meaning: ASPD is a Cluster B disorder marked by rule-breaking, impulsive behaviour, manipulation, and no guilt.
• Prevalence: Affects 5–15% of people; much higher in prisoners. In children, it appears as juvenile delinquency.
• Causes: Strong genetic influence (low serotonin, twin studies, ADHD), along with poor family environment and emotional deprivation.
• Impact: Individuals violate laws and social norms, posing risks to society; early identification is important.

• Meaning: AvPD involves fear of unfamiliar people, social inhibition, and feelings of inadequacy, but family relationships remain positive.
• Symptoms: Avoids strangers, feels embarrassed in groups, and struggles with peer relationships and studies.
• Causes: Linked to parental reinforcement of shyness, maternal anxiety, trauma, and low self-esteem.
• Risk Factors: More common in girls and in those with poor social skills or physical/medical difficulties.
• Treatment: Psychotherapy for both the child and parents to improve social skills and reduce avoidance.

• Meaning: HPD involves excessive emotionality and constant attention-seeking.
• Core Trait: Feels uncomfortable when not the centre of attention.
• Behaviour: Uses dramatic actions or appearance to gain attention and gets upset when ignored.
• Hidden Issue: Lacks true self-confidence and depends on others’ approval.
• Treatment: Psychotherapy (CBT, group therapy) is the main treatment; medication helps with related anxiety.

• Meaning: Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) is marked by an excessive need for care, leading to clingy and dependent relationships.
• Core Traits: Individuals show pessimism, self-doubt, and emotional immaturity.
• Relationship Pattern: They expect constant support and attention and form overly dependent relationships.
• Emotional Reaction: When their needs are not met, they feel resentful and create relationship conflicts.
• Impact: Their excessive dependence creates problems in personal, medical, and workplace relationships.

• Horney vs Freud: Horney said gender differences come from social conditions, not biology.
• Basic Anxiety: Disturbed parent-child relationships create fear of helplessness and isolation.
• Coping Styles: Children develop rigid coping styles that become part of their personality.
• Passive & Aggressive: Passive style means obedience; aggressive style means fighting and asserting.
• Withdrawn Style: Child avoids people and represses emotions to escape anxiety.

• Eating disorders are serious problems related to eating habits and body image, often starting in adolescence.
• Anorexia nervosa involves fear of weight gain, very little eating, and severe weight loss.
• Bulimia nervosa involves binge eating followed by purging like vomiting or using laxatives.
• Binge eating disorder involves repeated uncontrolled eating without purging.
• Other types include pica (eating non-food items) and rumination disorder (re-chewing food).

• Meaning: Behavioural disorders involve persistent, age-inappropriate behaviours that disrupt daily activities and social functioning.
• Developmental Nature: These disorders begin in childhood or adolescence and may cause serious long-term consequences if neglected.
• Intellectual & Developmental Disorders: Include mental retardation (low intellectual functioning), autism, and learning disabilities.
• Behavioural & Emotional Disorders: Include ADHD, conduct disorder, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders.
• Other Childhood Disorders: Include gender identity disorder, tic disorders (e.g., Tourette’s), and elimination disorders (e.g., enuresis, encopresis).

• Classification: Childhood developmental problems are divided into externalising (undercontrolled) and internalising (overcontrolled) types. ADHD, ODD, and CD fall under externalising disorders.
• ADHD: Marked by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity; more common in boys and causes academic difficulties despite normal intelligence.
• ODD: Characterised by persistent defiance, irritability, and argumentative behaviour beyond normal age limits; early intervention is important.
• CD: Involves serious, aggressive, deceitful, and rule-breaking behaviours with disregard for others’ rights.
• Causes & Treatment: These disorders are influenced by genetic and environmental factors and are managed through therapy, behaviour modification, family support, and early intervention.

• Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is an internalising disorder where a child shows excessive fear of separation from parents or loved ones.
• It is normal in early childhood, but becomes a disorder when it is intense, persistent, and disrupts daily functioning.
• Symptoms include excessive worry about losing parents, refusal to leave home, nightmares about separation, and physical complaints like headaches or stomachaches.
• Causes include life stress, separation experiences, and genetic factors.
• Early professional help, especially Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), along with parental support, can reduce the severity of the disorder.

• Autism (Autism Spectrum Disorder – ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting communication and social interaction.
• Symptoms usually appear in early childhood (12–24 months).
• ASD is characterized by problems in communication and social relationships.
• Children show restricted and repetitive behaviours, such as repeated movements or rigid routines.
• Other features include poor eye contact, difficulty sharing emotions, and sensitivity to sensory stimuli.
• Causes are not fully known but may include genetic factors, family history, older parents, low birth weight, and environmental risks.
• There is no cure, but therapies like behaviour therapy, speech therapy, and occupational therapy help improve functioning.

• The term schizophrenia was coined by Paul Eugen Bleuler in 1911 from the Greek words schizein (split) and phren (mind), referring to fragmented thinking.
• It is a psychotic disorder that usually begins in adolescence or young adulthood and disturbs thoughts, emotions, perception, and behaviour.
• It is a complex cluster of disorders involving withdrawal from reality and problems in attention, perception, motivation, and social relationships.
• Important theorists include Meyer (life stresses), Sullivan (social isolation), Langfeldt (types of schizophrenia), and Schneider (first-rank symptoms).
• Symptoms include positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thinking), negative symptoms (alogia, flat affect, avolition, social withdrawal), and psychomotor symptoms (catatonia).

• Positive symptoms are abnormal additions to behaviour such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganised thinking, bizarre behaviour, and incongruent affect.
• Hallucinations are false perceptions without real stimuli, commonly hearing voices or seeing things that are not present.
• Delusions are strong false beliefs, such as persecution, grandeur, or control over thoughts and actions.
• Disorganised thinking and speech involve loose associations, poor concentration, and invented words (neologisms).
• Bizarre behaviour and incongruent affect include unusual actions, catatonia, and emotions that do not match the situation.

• Negative symptoms refer to the absence of normal emotions and behaviours, leading to low functioning and poor quality of life.
• Common symptoms include flat affect, avolition, alogia, anhedonia, and social withdrawal.
• Patients often remain silent, isolated, and emotionally unresponsive.
• These symptoms affect daily life, causing poor performance, disturbed sleep, and neglect of hygiene.
• Negative symptoms usually last longer and respond less to treatment than positive symptoms.

• Schizophrenia – A mental disorder with abnormal thoughts, delusions, and hallucinations, causing personality decline.
• Catatonic – Extreme motor behaviour (rigid or violent); the most severe form.
• Disorganised – Silly behaviour, flat emotions, and unclear speech.
• Paranoid – Delusions of persecution/grandeur and hearing voices.
• Undifferentiated & Residual – Mixed symptoms, or social withdrawal after the acute phase.

• Schizophrenia is a serious disorder affecting 1–2% of people.
• Genetic factors – Runs in families; multiple genes increase risk.
• Biochemical factors – Neurotransmitter imbalance contributes to symptoms.
• Brain dysfunction – Enlarged ventricles and low frontal lobe activity affect thinking.
• Psychological factors – Stressful family environment and criticism increase risk and relapse.

• Early detection and diagnosis of schizophrenia are very important for better recovery.
• Treatment includes medication (to reduce symptoms like hallucinations) and psychiatric therapy.
• Around 30–40% recover completely, 30–40% partially, and 20–30% may remain chronic.
• Patient cooperation with doctors and regular treatment is essential for improvement.
• Family and social support in a warm and non-critical environment help reduce symptoms and improve adjustment.

• Forms: Psychotherapy includes group, family, marital, client-centred, and behaviour therapies.
• Types: Three main types — psychodynamic, behaviour, and existential therapy.
• Cause: Psychodynamic—inner conflicts; Behaviour—faulty learning; Existential—lack of life meaning.
• Treatment: Psychodynamic uses free association; Behaviour changes faulty behaviour; Existential supports self-growth.
• Clinical formulation: Explains the client’s problem and guides treatment.

• Psychodynamic therapies assume psychological disorders arise from unresolved unconscious conflicts.
• Freud's personality model includes the Id (pleasure), the Ego (reality), and the Superego (morality) that balance impulses and conscience.
• Mental disorders occur when there is a conflict between the Id impulses and the Ego control, disrupting daily life.
• Freud’s psychoanalysis uncovers hidden unconscious conflicts to resolve psychological issues.
• Example: A student skipping studies (Id) feels guilty (Superego), and the Ego fails to balance, causing stress.

• Psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud, explains personality through the Id (desires), the Ego (reason), and the Superego (morality).
• Repressed desires in the unconscious mind cause anxiety and lead the Ego to use defence mechanisms.
• Therapy helps clients gain insight into hidden feelings and conflicts through self-reflection.
• It is an important psychological theory that introduced the concept of the unconscious mind.
• However, it is time-consuming, expensive, and lacks strong scientific evidence.
• Today, modified psychoanalytic therapies are used that focus on both past conflicts and present problems.

• Psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud, aims to bring unconscious conflicts and repressed desires into conscious awareness.
• Free Association allows the client to speak freely about thoughts and feelings, helping uncover hidden conflicts in the unconscious mind.
• Dream Interpretation analyzes the hidden meanings of dreams, which Freud called the “royal road to the unconscious.”
• Resistance occurs when clients unconsciously block painful memories or thoughts during therapy.
• Transference happens when clients transfer feelings from past relationships onto the therapist, helping reveal childhood conflicts and emotions.

• Alfred Adler believed feelings of inferiority can cause mental disorders.
• Inferiority may lead to wrong beliefs and faulty thinking, affecting mental health.
• Adler’s theory, Individual Psychology, states that human behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed.
• Personal goals motivate behaviour and help overcome feelings of inadequacy.
• An inferiority complex from childhood must be overcome for healthy personality development.

• Humanistic Approach: Mental disorders occur when the environment blocks personal growth and self-fulfilment.
• Developer & Aim: Developed by Carl Rogers to reduce negative self-image and anxiety.
• Basis: Based on self-actualisation; problems arise when a person’s growth is blocked, especially in childhood.
• Non-Directive Therapy: The therapist does not direct or interpret; the client explores their own feelings.
• Therapeutic Climate: Therapist provides empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard.
• Client’s Role: The client does most of the therapeutic work.
• Limitation: Effectiveness is not fully supported by empirical research.

• Behaviour Therapy: Based on behaviourism, mental disorders occur due to faulty learning.
• Focus: Emphasises present behaviour, while the past is considered only to understand causes.
• Basis: Based on classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov and instrumental conditioning by Edward Thorndike.
• Behavioural Analysis: Identifies malfunctioning behaviour, antecedent factors, and maintaining factors.
• Reinforcement: Uses positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, token economy, and differential reinforcement.
• Techniques: Aversive conditioning, systematic desensitisation, modelling, and relaxation.
• Therapist’s Role: Conduct accurate behavioural analysis and choose suitable techniques to change behaviour.

• Meaning: A behaviour therapy used to treat phobias and anxiety by gradual exposure to feared situations while staying relaxed.
• Basis: Based on classical conditioning and reciprocal inhibition, where relaxation reduces anxiety.
• Steps: Involves relaxation training, anxiety hierarchy, and gradual desensitisation.
• Use: Effective for phobias, anxiety neuroses, and exam anxiety.

• Ayllon and Houghton (1962) found that chronic schizophrenic patients resumed eating themselves when food was used as a reinforcer.
• The improvement brought about by the manipulation of food tended to generalise to social interaction among patients.

• Flooding is a technique where the person is exposed to a very intense anxiety-provoking situation until the anxiety gradually reduces.
• It helps the client face fear directly instead of avoiding it, building tolerance to stress.
• It works by reducing autonomic (physical) anxiety responses, so the stimulus no longer creates fear.
• It is based on the idea that neurotic behaviour develops due to conditioned avoidance of fearful situations.
• It is used to treat phobias (e.g., fear of animals, water) and is often more effective than just imagining the feared situation.

• Modelling is a behaviour therapy based on social learning theory by Albert Bandura (1963), where patients learn by observing others.
• In this technique, the patient watches a model perform behaviours that they find difficult or fearful.
• It is used to treat phobias, such as fear of snakes, dogs, cats, spiders, and dark places.
• It is also used to improve interpersonal relationships by observing therapists’ interactions.
• Through continuous observation of models, fear reduces and new behaviours are learned.

• Assertive training is a behaviour therapy used to help people behave confidently in social situations.
• It reduces anxiety in interpersonal relationships and helps people express their rights and opinions.
• It is useful for non-assertive individuals who are shy, timid, or afraid to speak up.
• The therapist assesses non-assertiveness and gives practice situations to train the client to respond assertively.
• With practice, the person gains self-confidence and learns that assertiveness is different from aggression.

• A behavioural technique used to control unwanted and repetitive thoughts.
• Developed by J. G. Taylor (1955) and later by Joseph Wolpe (1973).
• The therapist says “STOP” when the disturbing thought occurs; later, the client uses it themselves.
• “STOP” acts as an aversive cue, reducing the frequency of the unwanted thoughts.
• It helps reduce anxiety and interrupt intrusive thinking.

• Token Economy is a behaviour therapy technique based on operant conditioning.
• Patients earn tokens for showing desirable behaviour, which can later be exchanged for rewards.
• It involves identifying undesirable behaviour and reinforcing desirable behaviour through tokens.
• Rewards may include food items, entertainment, privileges, or other incentives.
• The main aim is to develop socially acceptable and adaptive behaviour, especially in children and hospitalized patients.

• Behaviour therapy is based on scientific principles and focuses on clearly defined behaviours.
• Its results are observable, measurable, and repeatable.
• It is less effective for some severe disorders like severe depression, autism, and schizophrenia.
• It is effective for many maladaptive and neurotic behaviours with good success rates.
• However, it does not focus much on deeper psychological or childhood issues, so it may not be sufficient alone.

• CBT is a common therapy for anxiety and depression that helps replace negative thoughts with realistic ones.
• It follows a biopsychosocial approach, addressing biological, psychological, and social causes of distress.
• Cognitive therapy states that psychological problems arise from irrational thoughts and beliefs.
• Albert Ellis’ RET uses the ABC model (Antecedent–Belief–Consequence) to identify and challenge irrational beliefs.
• Aaron Beck’s theory explains how negative automatic thoughts and cognitive distortions cause anxiety and depression.
• CBT is a short-term therapy (10–20 sessions) that teaches effective coping skills.

• Rehabilitation helps restore a person’s normal life, dignity, and self-confidence.
• It usually begins after treatment to help individuals return to society.
• It is useful for delinquents and persons with mental or emotional challenges.
• Activities like simple work, education, and training are used in rehabilitation.
• It helps develop confidence, social adjustment, and independence.
• Government support and proper programmes are needed for successful rehabilitation.