Revision: Social Thought and Social Behaviour Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

The person whose state or behaviour is being judged by the perceiver.

A situation where two or more people interact with each other and perceive each other's behaviour, activities, and responses in relation to the situation.

The person who judges or perceives another in a perceptual situation.

The process through which people try to determine and understand the causes and reasons behind others' behaviour, whether due to internal causes or external factors.

Skepticism means doubt about the extent to which human action is or could be directed by reason.

Internalism refers to the false belief or bias that an explanation can be given about a particular subject in question by pointing to things that are internal to the person, like his intelligence, memory, emotional feeling, and for which the person himself is responsible and not any external factor like another person or bad weather, or traffic jam, etc.

When all the people agree to a proposal or decision, it is called consensus.

Counter factual thinkings are biases which are not based on objective facts or reasons, but based on imagination and hypothetical views.

Hostile Attribution Bias is defined as an interpretive bias where people demonstrate a tendency to interpret others’ ambiguous behaviours as hostile as against friendly ones.

• A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
• In social psychology, a group is defined as ‘two or more interacting persons who share common goals, have a stable set of role relationships, are somehow interdependent, follow a set of norms that regulate their behaviours, and perceive that they are in fact a part of the group.

• “A small group is usually of 2 to 10 persons who have common objects of attention, jointly attempt at problem solving and decision making, who are strongly stimulating each other, who have common loyalty, and participate in similar activities.” - Kuppuswamy
• “A small group is a small number of persons with intimate relationships with each other, who collectively and vigorously work for the group's goal.” - Borgardus

It refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the group, it means a feeling that they belong to the group.

• Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil.
• Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.

Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others.

• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members.
• Cohesiveness refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness to the group.

A norm means a standard which serves as a reference point for showing any response in a social context.

Social norm refers to rules and regulations of the society indicating how individuals should behave and respond in specific situations in the society.

It refers to a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes and behaviours in order to adhere to existing social norms." - Baron, 2004

• Obedience is a type of social influence wherein people try to accept, agree, and respect the request and order of another person.
• Obedience simply means to obey. It is a tendency to accept and agree to the requests and orders of persons of authority.

• Social perception means understanding and judging people, their behaviour, groups, and social institutions in social situations.
• It occurs when two or more people interact and form impressions about each other.
• The way a person perceives or judges a situation determines how he/she will behave in that situation.
• Both the perceiver (observer) and the perceived (person being judged) influence social perception.
• Social perception is not fixed; it changes over time due to internal and external factors, and accurate perception is important for healthy social relationships.

• Attribution is the process of finding out the causes of a person’s behavior.
• It is a part of social thought and influences how we judge others.
• Internal causes include personality traits, motives, and intentions.
• External causes include situational or environmental factors.
• Behavior is judged using Consensus, Consistency, and Distinctiveness to decide whether the cause is internal or external.

• Attribution Bias refers to errors people make while judging the causes of others’ behavior.
• People often ignore situational factors and blame the person’s character instead.
• This bias gives too much importance to personal traits and too little to external circumstances.
• As a result, people may be unfairly blamed for actions that were actually influenced by external pressure or difficult situations.

• Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error) is the tendency to explain others’ behaviour mainly by internal causes, even when external factors are present.
• This bias is more common in individualistic cultures (e.g., Western countries) and less common in collectivistic cultures, as shown in studies by Choi and Nisbett.
• Self-Serving Bias is the tendency to attribute success to internal qualities (ability, effort) and failure to external factors.
• People use self-serving bias to protect self-esteem and self-image, as supported by research (Brown and Rogers).
• Self-serving bias is stronger in individualistic societies and may harm interpersonal relationships by creating an attitude of “I am right, you are wrong.”

• Feedback affects attribution. We judge people positively or negatively based on the success or failure of their actions.
• Success is usually attributed to a person’s ability, while failure often leads to negative judgments.
• People may also attribute outcomes to objects or luck, such as a lucky pen or dress.
• According to Davis and Kelley, attribution has two types of causes: environmental causes and personal causes.
• Our impressions and past experiences (feedback) influence how we assign responsibility to others in everyday life.

• Positive bias occurs when we see someone more favourably because they have helped or supported us.
• Gratitude and positive feelings influence how we judge a person’s character.
• Help that is seen as intentional and selfless createsa  stronger positive bias.
• This type of bias usually develops during middle childhood.
• According to Piaget, young children judge actions by the damage caused, while older children consider intention and past behaviour.

• Motivational bias occurs when a person changes judgments to gain personal benefits (material or non-material).
• It is a conscious bias influenced by reward, punishment, or personal interest.
• People may flatter others or change their perception to serve selfish goals.
• Rewards and punishments influence how a person responds and makes attributions.
• Motivational bias is different from cognitive bias because it is driven by personal motives, not thinking errors.

• False consensus effect is the tendency to believe that others share our opinions, behaviors, or judgments.
• It is an egocentric bias that leads to wrong attributions in social perception.
• People think their own responses are common and correct, while alternative views are uncommon.
• This bias is caused by cognitive and perceptual mechanisms.
• According to Kelley, low consensus leads to dispositional attribution, while high consensus leads to situational attribution (when consistency and distinctiveness are also high).

• Cognitive bias occurs due to a lack of information or mental shortcuts in thinking.
• Biases arise from information-processing limits, not always from motives.
• Storm’s (1973) study showed that people make different attributions based on the information or viewpoint available to them.
• When judgments are not based on facts, they become counterfactual (imaginary or hypothetical thinking).
• Because of cognitive bias, different people interpret the same situation differently.

• Cultural bias refers to differences in attribution patterns across cultures.
• Western (individualistic) and Eastern (collectivistic) societies show different attribution strategies.
• The meaning of internal and external attributions is similar across cultures.
• The main difference lies in how people use these attributions in social situations.
• There is no complete agreement among researchers about cross-cultural differences in attribution bias.

• Intergroup attribution bias occurs when people judge in-group and out-group members differently.
• People tend to view their own group positively and the other group negatively.
• Groups often criticize each other without strong factual evidence.
• This bias is common in political and social group conflicts.
• Research shows that such biases begin early in childhood, along with prejudice and stereotypes.

• Attribution bias is not only due to thinking errors; people think actively.
• Motivation influences judgments (Kunda’s view).
• People interpret situations based on their goals and desires.
• Cognitive and motivational biases work together.
• Psychologists disagree on attribution theories.

• Attribution bias can be reduced through early education and proper training.
• Reducing prejudice, stereotypes, and negative attitudes helps lower bias.
• Attributional retraining helps people change the way they explain events.
• Orientation training and role-playing techniques reduce biased thinking.
• Reducing attribution bias promotes peace and social harmony.

• A group is an organised system of two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who share common goals, roles, and norms.
• Groups create a sense of belongingness (“we-feeling”) and influence the socialisation, personality, and behaviour of individuals.
• A group is different from a crowd, audience, or category because it has structure, interdependence, stable relationships, and shared goals.
• Primary groups (e.g., family) have close relationships and strong influence, while secondary groups (e.g., school, clubs) are less intimate.
• Small groups (2–10 members) provide better interaction and understanding of behaviour compared to large groups.
• Teams are special types of groups where members have complementary skills, shared responsibility, and coordinated efforts.
• Social influence changes attitudes through three processes: compliance (conformity), identification (influence of groups), and internalisation (influence of persuasive sources).

• Mutual Awareness – Members are aware of each other and recognise themselves as part of the group.
• Common Goals – Group members share common interests, motives, or objectives.
• Interdependence – Members depend on one another; actions of one affect others.
• Sense of Unity – There is a feeling of belongingness and togetherness among members.
• We-Feeling – Members identify themselves as “we” and show loyalty to the group.
• Well-Defined Norms – Groups have clear rules, values, and expectations that guide behaviour.
• Interaction and Similar Behaviour – Members interact regularly and show similar patterns of behaviour to achieve group goals.

• Primary groups – Close, face-to-face, emotional relations (e.g., family).
• Secondary groups – Impersonal and goal-oriented (e.g., political party).
• Formal groups – Have clear rules, structure, and defined roles (e.g., office).
• Informal groups – No fixed rules, based on personal relations (e.g., friends).
• In-group – “We” group; viewed positively.
• Out-group – “They” group; often viewed negatively.
• Tajfel’s finding – People favour their own group even when groups are formed on small differences.

• Five-Stage Model of Group Formation – Groups pass through five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
• Factors for Group Formation – Proximity, similarity, common goals, and external threats influence group formation.
• Group Cohesiveness – High cohesiveness strengthens unity, but excessive cohesiveness can lead to groupthink, where critical thinking is suppressed.
• Reasons for Joining Groups – People join groups for security, status, self-esteem, goal achievement, and psychological/social needs.
• Instinct & Biological Theories – Humans have an innate need for belonging, which drives group formation.
• Role Theory – People join groups to perform specific roles and contribute to group goals through division of labour.
• Stages of Group Development – Groups develop through forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning, with group norms and cohesiveness influencing behaviour.

• Security – Groups reduce fear and insecurity by providing support and protection.
• Self-Esteem – Group membership increases confidence and sense of self-worth.
• Status – Being part of a group gives recognition and social respect.
• Affiliation – Groups satisfy the need for belongingness and social interaction.
• Power – A group has more influence and strength than an individual.
• Goal Achievement – Groups help achieve common goals by combining talents and efforts.

• Fulfilling Needs – Groups help satisfy various social and psychological needs, such as achievement, affiliation, safety, and approval.
• Achieving Complex Goals – Some goals are too difficult to achieve alone, so people join groups to get mutual support in reaching these goals.
• Gaining Knowledge – Groups are important sources of knowledge and information, with much of our learning coming from social interactions in groups.
• Social Learning – More than 70% of our knowledge comes through social learning within groups, as noted by Bandura.
• Developing Positive Self-Concept – Group membership helps individuals develop a positive self-identity and confidence through the reinforcement of group norms and values.

• Reasons for Joining Groups – Groups fulfil psychological needs, help achieve goals, provide knowledge, ensure security, and boost self-concept.
• Group Mind – A shared group consciousness that guides its activities and improves efficiency.
• Conformity – Members adjust attitudes/behaviours to align with group norms.
• Compliance – Members follow direct requests, promoting unity.
• Obedience – Members follow orders, ensuring order and discipline.
• Persuasion – Leaders change members' attitudes to align with group goals.
• Attraction – Positive relationships among members improve group performance.

• Social Facilitation – Performance improves in the presence of others due to increased arousal and concern about being judged.
• Social Inhibition – Some people perform worse in groups due to anxiety and fear of judgment, leading to mistakes.
• Social Loafing – People exert less effort in groups because they feel less responsible and their contributions aren’t individually evaluated.
• Reducing Social Loafing – Social loafing can be reduced by making individual efforts identifiable, increasing task importance, and boosting group cohesion.
• Risk-Taking – Groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals due to group confidence and the belief that the group is more accurate.
• Group Mind – The collective mindset of a group can enhance confidence and encourage more extreme decisions, such as taking risks.
• Group Dynamics – Group interactions, such as social facilitation, inhibition, and risk-taking, significantly influence individual behaviour and performance.

• Human behaviour is influenced by culture, family, and social environment from birth.
• Through socialisation, individuals learn to follow social norms, values, and traditions.
• Social norms and cultural values guide and regulate behaviour in society.
• Agents of socialisation (family, society, culture) help develop attitudes, values, and personality.
• Social influence not only shapes behaviour but can also change behaviour over time.

• Improper socialisation can lead to asocial or antisocial behaviour.
• Antisocial individuals disrupt society and break social norms.
• Changing antisocial behaviour is necessary to become a good societal member.
• Individuals under 18 are sent to rehabilitation centres for behaviour correction.
• Social activists work to change negative behaviours for a better society.

• Resocialization and Counselling – Counselling helps change deviant behaviour by showing its negative consequences.
• Parental Care – Proper parenting corrects undesirable behaviours in children.
• Influence of Secondary Groups – Friends, teachers, and media positively influence behaviour.
• Rehabilitation – Programs like education help criminals reintegrate into society.
• Sympathy and Empathy – Compassion and empathy can transform antisocial behaviour.

• Meaning – Social norms are rules and standards that guide how people should behave in society.
• Function – Norms regulate behaviour and provide guidance in new or unfamiliar situations.
• Types – Descriptive norms explain what most people do, while injunctive norms state what should or should not be done.
• Role in Socialisation – Norms help individuals learn proper behaviour and encourage conformity to group standards.
• Group Norms – They include shared attitudes, feelings about correct behaviour, and rewards or punishments for actions.
• Cultural Difference – Social norms vary from one culture to another, leading to different patterns of behaviour.
• Changing Norms – Social norms change over time, and harmful norms should be modified for better physical and mental well-being.

• Conformity is the change in attitudes and behaviours to align with social norms, influenced by societal pressure and expectations.
• People conform to social norms to gain approval, acceptance, and rewards from others.
• People conform because they want to behave correctly and depend on social guidance (family, friends, teachers) to understand what is socially acceptable.
• Personality traits, such as lower intellectual effectiveness, need for social approval, and rigidity, may make someone more likely to conform.
• Conformity is influenced more by situational factors than personality, and it varies based on context.

• Importance in Childhood – Conformity helps in socialisation by promoting belongingness to the in-group and counteracting out-group pressure.
• Benefits of Conformity – It leads to orderly, predictable behaviour and provides security, as the group supports its members in times of need.
• Overdoing Conformity – Excessive conformity can lead to negative outcomes, such as generating dislike instead of acceptance.
• Factors Influencing Conformity – Conformity is higher in face-to-face interactions and open voting, and is lower when individuals express views privately or in writing.
• In-group and Status – A strong in-group feeling and high status of individuals influence conformity within the group.

• Reasons for Conformity – People conform to social norms due to societal pressure or because norms are internalised through socialisation.
• Unhealthy Social Norms – People may conform to harmful norms (e.g., body image standards) due to societal influence, even though they can affect health.
• Changing Unhealthy Norms – Bad social norms should be challenged and changed through awareness and media campaigns.
• Social Influence – Social influence shapes behaviour, attitudes, and personality through persuasion, conformity, compliance, and obedience.
• Temporary Divergence – People may temporarily diverge from social norms if they conflict with personal values or needs.
• Independent-Minded Individuals – Independent individuals may resist norms that conflict with their values, but may conform when necessary.
• Conformity vs Non-Conformity – The line between conformity and non-conformity is thin, often influenced by external factors and situational needs.

• Asch's Experiment – Studied the impact of group pressure on individual conformity.
• Procedure – Participants conformed to the wrong answers given by the majority.
• Conformity Rate – 37% conformed to the incorrect group answer.
• Individual Differences – Some were independent, others conformed more.
• Group Pressure – People conform to avoid ridicule or standing out.
• Cultural Influence – Milgram's study showed cross-cultural conformity is similar.
• Personal Experience – Group pressure made the lecturer doubt, but confidence helped resist conformity.

• Meaning– Obedience is the act of following orders from someone in authority.
• Obedience in Society – People obey authority figures like seniors, employers, or family heads based on social norms and power dynamics.
• Obedience and Authority – Obedience is stronger when commands come from powerful figures with authority, even if they don't have the power to punish.
• Milgram's Experiment – Milgram’s study showed that 65% of participants obeyed orders to give dangerous electric shocks, even when the victim protested.
• Social Support – Social support can reduce obedience; people are less likely to obey if they have support from others resisting authority.
• Disobedience and Social Influence – Disobedience can increase when individuals receive support from others, as seen in Milgram’s study and daily life examples.
• Conclusion from Milgram’s Study – People often obey authority, regardless of the morality of the act, as long as the authority is perceived as legitimate.

• Lack of Responsibility – People obey when they feel that responsibility lies with someone else, not with them.
• Diffusion of Responsibility – In group or mob situations, individuals feel less personally accountable, which increases obedience.
• Assurance from Authority – When a leader or superior takes responsibility, people are more likely to obey orders.
• Following Orders of Superiors – Individuals often justify their actions by saying they are “only following orders.”
• Authority and Prestige – People are more likely to obey someone who has power, status, or recognised authority.

• In Milgram’s experiment, participants were instructed to give shocks in a gradual, step-by-step manner.
• The gradual increase in commands made obedience easier and more likely.
• Small initial actions led participants to continue obeying even when orders became severe.
• In real life, authority often uses gradual instructions to ensure compliance.
• Step-by-step escalation of orders can lead ordinary people to carry out harmful actions.

• Conformity means yielding to group pressure, while obedience means following orders from an authority.
• Conformity is related to group influence, whereas obedience is directly connected to authority and command.
• Obedience can be positive and socially useful, but blind obedience to unlawful orders can cause cruelty and harm.
• People obey due to factors like fear of punishment, situational pressure, or personal tendencies.
• However, obedience is not absolute—brave individuals may resist unjust authority (e.g., freedom movements and acts of disobedience).

• Privacy reduces conformity – When people give opinions secretly or alone, conformity decreases (e.g., secret voting).
• Low group unity reduces conformity – If there is no “we-feeling” or group morale is low, obedience and conformity decrease.
• Intelligence and reasoning reduce blind obedience – Rational and intelligent people question decisions before conforming.
• Rigid or independent personality lowers conformity – Stubborn or independent-minded people may resist group pressure.
• Lack of fear of punishment reduces obedience – If there is no penalty, people may not obey orders.
• Moral, religious, or value conflict reduces conformity – People do not conform to decisions that go against their beliefs or principles.
• Lack of loyalty, poor socialisation, or selfish motives affect conformity. When there is no belongingness or shared interest, conformity and obedience decrease.