Revision: Social Thought and Social Behaviour Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

A situation where two or more people interact with each other and perceive each other's behaviour, activities, and responses in relation to the situation.

The person who judges or perceives another in a perceptual situation.

The person whose state or behaviour is being judged by the perceiver.

The process through which people try to determine and understand the causes and reasons behind others' behaviour, whether due to internal causes or external factors.

Counter factual thinkings are biases which are not based on objective facts or reasons, but based on imagination and hypothetical views.

Internalism refers to the false belief or bias that an explanation can be given about a particular subject in question by pointing to things that are internal to the person, like his intelligence, memory, emotional feeling, and for which the person himself is responsible and not any external factor like another person or bad weather, or traffic jam, etc.

When all the people agree to a proposal or decision, it is called consensus.

Hostile Attribution Bias is defined as an interpretive bias where people demonstrate a tendency to interpret others’ ambiguous behaviours as hostile as against friendly ones.

A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.

• “A small group is usually of 2 to 10 persons who have common objects of attention, jointly attempt at problem solving and decision making, who are strongly stimulating each other, who have common loyalty, and participate in similar activities.” - Kuppuswamy
• “A small group is a small number of persons with intimate relationships with each other, who collectively and vigorously work for the group's goal.” - Borgardus

It refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the group, it means a feeling that they belong to the group.

• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members.
• Cohesiveness refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness to the group.

Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others.

• Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil.
• Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.

A norm means a standard which serves as a reference point for showing any response in a social context.

Social norm refers to rules and regulations of the society indicating how individuals should behave and respond in specific situations in the society.

It refers to a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes and behaviours in order to adhere to existing social norms." - Baron, 2004

• Obedience is a type of social influence wherein people try to accept, agree, and respect the request and order of another person.
• Obedience simply means to obey. It is a tendency to accept and agree to the requests and orders of persons of authority.

• Social Perception: It means understanding social processes and a person's relations with others, groups, and institutions.
• Social Interaction: It occurs when two or more people interact and perceive each other's behaviour and responses.
• Perceiver & Perceived: The perceiver judges the other person, while the perceived is the person whose behaviour is judged.
• Dynamic Nature: Social perception is not fixed; it changes due to internal and external factors.
• Importance: Accurate social perception is necessary for smooth relationships and social interaction.

• Attribution Bias refers to errors people make while judging the causes of others’ behavior.
• People often ignore situational factors and blame the person’s character instead.
• This bias gives too much importance to personal traits and too little to external circumstances.
• As a result, people may be unfairly blamed for actions that were actually influenced by external pressure or difficult situations.

• Cognitive Bias: Lack of information leads people to use mental shortcuts, causing errors in judgment.
• Cognitive Model: Attribution biases occur due to limits in human information processing.
• Storms’ Study (1973): Visual perspective affects how people make attributions.
• Counterfactual Thinking: Imagining alternatives to events that did not actually happen.
• Connection: Limited information and imagination together can distort judgments about people and events.

• Positive bias occurs when we see someone more favourably because they have helped or supported us.
• Gratitude and positive feelings influence how we judge a person’s character.
• Help that is seen as intentional and selfless createsa  stronger positive bias.
• This type of bias usually develops during middle childhood.
• According to Piaget, young children judge actions by the damage caused, while older children consider intention and past behaviour.

• False consensus effect is the tendency to believe that others share our opinions, behaviors, or judgments.
• It is an egocentric bias that leads to wrong attributions in social perception.
• People think their own responses are common and correct, while alternative views are uncommon.
• This bias is caused by cognitive and perceptual mechanisms.
• According to Kelley, low consensus leads to dispositional attribution, while high consensus leads to situational attribution (when consistency and distinctiveness are also high).

• Cognitive View: Attribution bias was first seen as an information-processing error.
• Criticism: People are not passive; their motives and emotions influence judgments.
• Kunda (1990): Bias occurs when people are motivated to reach a desired conclusion.
• Interactive Biases: Cognitive, motivational, and counterfactual biases work together.
• Research Issue: Psychologists have different findings; no single theory of attribution bias.

• Attribution Bias: Systematic errors in explaining behaviour, where people blame personality and ignore the situation.
• Early Education & Training: Teaches awareness of attribution errors and develops self-awareness.
• Reducing Prejudice: Removing stereotypes helps reduce attribution bias.
• Training Methods: Attributional retraining, orientation training, and role-playing help people understand others' perspectives.
• Social Impact: These methods promote empathy and fair judgment and reduce social conflict.

• Mutual Awareness – Members are aware of each other and recognise themselves as part of the group.
• Common Goals – Group members share common interests, motives, or objectives.
• Interdependence – Members depend on one another; actions of one affect others.
• Sense of Unity – There is a feeling of belongingness and togetherness among members.
• We-Feeling – Members identify themselves as “we” and show loyalty to the group.
• Well-Defined Norms – Groups have clear rules, values, and expectations that guide behaviour.
• Interaction and Similar Behaviour – Members interact regularly and show similar patterns of behaviour to achieve group goals.

• Primary groups – Close, face-to-face, emotional relations (e.g., family).
• Secondary groups – Impersonal and goal-oriented (e.g., political party).
• Formal groups – Have clear rules, structure, and defined roles (e.g., office).
• Informal groups – No fixed rules, based on personal relations (e.g., friends).
• In-group – “We” group; viewed positively.
• Out-group – “They” group; often viewed negatively.
• Tajfel’s finding – People favour their own group even when groups are formed on small differences.

• Five-Stage Model of Group Formation – Groups pass through five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
• Factors for Group Formation – Proximity, similarity, common goals, and external threats influence group formation.
• Group Cohesiveness – High cohesiveness strengthens unity, but excessive cohesiveness can lead to groupthink, where critical thinking is suppressed.
• Reasons for Joining Groups – People join groups for security, status, self-esteem, goal achievement, and psychological/social needs.
• Instinct & Biological Theories – Humans have an innate need for belonging, which drives group formation.
• Role Theory – People join groups to perform specific roles and contribute to group goals through division of labour.
• Stages of Group Development – Groups develop through forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning, with group norms and cohesiveness influencing behaviour.

• Security – Groups reduce fear and insecurity by providing support and protection.
• Self-Esteem – Group membership increases confidence and sense of self-worth.
• Status – Being part of a group gives recognition and social respect.
• Affiliation – Groups satisfy the need for belongingness and social interaction.
• Power – A group has more influence and strength than an individual.
• Goal Achievement – Groups help achieve common goals by combining talents and efforts.

• Fulfilling Needs: Groups satisfy social and psychological needs like achievement, affiliation, safety, and approval.
• Achieving Goals: People join groups to accomplish complex goals that are difficult to achieve alone.
• Gaining Knowledge: Groups provide important knowledge and information through interaction.
• Social Learning: According to Bandura, much learning happens through observing others in groups.
• Positive Self-Concept: Being part of a group builds confidence and a positive self-identity.

• Reasons for Joining Groups – Groups fulfil psychological needs, help achieve goals, provide knowledge, ensure security, and boost self-concept.
• Group Mind – A shared group consciousness that guides its activities and improves efficiency.
• Conformity – Members adjust attitudes/behaviours to align with group norms.
• Compliance – Members follow direct requests, promoting unity.
• Obedience – Members follow orders, ensuring order and discipline.
• Persuasion – Leaders change members' attitudes to align with group goals.
• Attraction – Positive relationships among members improve group performance.

• Group Influence: Groups like family and friends shape our behaviour, communication, and responses.
• Social Facilitation: The presence of others can improve performance due to increased motivation and arousal.
• Social Inhibition: Sometimes performance decreases in front of others, especially in difficult tasks.
• Social Loafing: People may put less effort in groups because responsibility is shared.
• Reducing Social Loafing: It can be reduced by making individual efforts identifiable and increasing task importance.
• Risk-Taking: Groups often make riskier decisions because responsibility is shared.
• Group Polarisation: Group discussions can make opinions stronger and more extreme.

• Human behaviour is influenced by culture, family, and social environment from birth.
• Through socialisation, individuals learn to follow social norms, values, and traditions.
• Social norms and cultural values guide and regulate behaviour in society.
• Agents of socialisation (family, society, culture) help develop attitudes, values, and personality.
• Social influence not only shapes behaviour but can also change behaviour over time.

• Socialisation teaches norms, but some people develop asocial or antisocial behaviours.
• Antisocial behaviour breaks norms and disturbs peace and law in society.
• A behaviour change is needed to restore order and help individuals live properly.
• Children with such behaviour may be sent to children’s homes for training.
• Social activists and organisations help reform deviant personalities.

• Resocialisation and Counselling – Counselling helps change deviant behaviour by showing its negative consequences.
• Parental Care – Proper parenting corrects undesirable behaviours in children.
• Influence of Secondary Groups – Friends, teachers, and media positively influence behaviour.
• Rehabilitation – Programmes like education help criminals reintegrate into society.
• Sympathy and Empathy – Compassion and empathy can transform antisocial behaviour.

• Social norms are rules that guide how people should behave in society.
• They act as standards for behaviour in different social situations.
• Two types of norms are descriptive norms and injunctive norms.
• Norms help in socialisation and maintaining social order.
• Social norms change over time, and harmful norms should be improved.

• Conformity is when individuals change their behaviour or attitudes to match their group.
• It helps maintain social harmony and group identity.
• Advantages include socialisation, belongingness (we-feeling), social order, and security.
• Excessive or blind conformity can be harmful to the individual.
• Conformity is influenced by factors like open voting, in-group feeling, prior commitment, and high-status persons.

• People conform to social norms due to their fear of social disapproval, socialisation, and persuasion.
• Some norms can be unhealthy, so harmful norms should be gradually changed and healthier ones promoted.
• Social influences change behaviour and attitudes through persuasion, conformity, compliance, and obedience.
• People may temporarily diverge from norms when they conflict with personal values or needs.
• Conformity and non-conformity are relative, and a person may show both in different situations.
• Solomon Asch (1952) emphasised the importance of independence and resisting social pressure.

• Asch's Experiment – Studied the impact of group pressure on individual conformity.
• Procedure – Participants conformed to the wrong answers given by the majority.
• Conformity Rate – 37% conformed to the incorrect group answer.
• Individual Differences – Some were independent, others conformed more.
• Group Pressure – People conform to avoid ridicule or standing out.
• Cultural Influence – Milgram's study showed cross-cultural conformity is similar.
• Personal Experience – Group pressure made the lecturer doubt, but confidence helped resist conformity.

• Meaning– Obedience is the act of following orders from someone in authority.
• Obedience in Society – People obey authority figures like seniors, employers, or family heads based on social norms and power dynamics.
• Obedience and Authority – Obedience is stronger when commands come from powerful figures with authority, even if they don't have the power to punish.
• Milgram's Experiment – Milgram’s study showed that 65% of participants obeyed orders to give dangerous electric shocks, even when the victim protested.
• Social Support – Social support can reduce obedience; people are less likely to obey if they have support from others resisting authority.
• Disobedience and Social Influence – Disobedience can increase when individuals receive support from others, as seen in Milgram’s study and daily life examples.
• Conclusion from Milgram’s Study – People often obey authority, regardless of the morality of the act, as long as the authority is perceived as legitimate.

• Lack of Responsibility – People obey when they feel that responsibility lies with someone else, not with them.
• Diffusion of Responsibility – In group or mob situations, individuals feel less personally accountable, which increases obedience.
• Assurance from Authority – When a leader or superior takes responsibility, people are more likely to obey orders.
• Following Orders of Superiors – Individuals often justify their actions by saying they are “only following orders.”
• Authority and Prestige – People are more likely to obey someone who has power, status, or recognised authority.

• In Milgram’s experiment, participants were instructed to give shocks in a gradual, step-by-step manner.
• The gradual increase in commands made obedience easier and more likely.
• Small initial actions led participants to continue obeying even when orders became severe.
• In real life, authority often uses gradual instructions to ensure compliance.
• Step-by-step escalation of orders can lead ordinary people to carry out harmful actions.

• Conformity means yielding to group pressure, while obedience means following orders from an authority.
• Conformity is related to group influence, whereas obedience is directly connected to authority and command.
• Obedience can be positive and socially useful, but blind obedience to unlawful orders can cause cruelty and harm.
• People obey due to factors like fear of punishment, situational pressure, or personal tendencies.
• However, obedience is not absolute—brave individuals may resist unjust authority (e.g., freedom movements and acts of disobedience).

• Privacy reduces conformity – When people give opinions secretly or alone, conformity decreases (e.g., secret voting).
• Low group unity reduces conformity – If there is no “we-feeling” or group morale is low, obedience and conformity decrease.
• Intelligence and reasoning reduce blind obedience – Rational and intelligent people question decisions before conforming.
• Rigid or independent personality lowers conformity – Stubborn or independent-minded people may resist group pressure.
• Lack of fear of punishment reduces obedience – If there is no penalty, people may not obey orders.
• Moral, religious, or value conflict reduces conformity – People do not conform to decisions that go against their beliefs or principles.
• Lack of loyalty, poor socialisation, or selfish motives affect conformity. When there is no belongingness or shared interest, conformity and obedience decrease.