Revision: Life Span Development Psychology ISC (Arts) Class 12 CISCE

• According to Lewis Terman, “An ability to think on an abstract level is called Intelligence.”
• According to David Wechsler, ‘Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.’
• According to Binet (1905), “Intelligence refers to comprehension, intention, direction, and criticism.”
• According to Wyatt, “Intelligence is the power of apprehending the relationship between things.”
• According to Stern, “Intelligence is a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions.”
• Spearman (1904), “Intelligence is the capacity for constructive thinking, a discovery of appropriate qualities and relations of the ideas that are before us.”
• According to Thurstone (1930), “Intelligence consists of many primary abilities.”
• Thus, Kimbel and Germazy state, “Intelligence consists of the abilities that a society values, because they are useful in meeting the society’s current needs. When these needs change, the abilities that define intelligence change.”

Adolescence is the period between the beginning of sexual maturation and entry into adult life.

According to P. T. Young, "Emotion is an acute disturbance of the body (organism) as a whole, psychological in origin involving behaviour, conscious experience and visceral functioning."

Gender Identity can be defined as "the conceptions that individuals have of themselves as being male or female."

• It is an eating disorder in which individuals engage in recurrent episodes to binge eating followed by some form of purging.
• Bulimia nervosa is an episodic, uncontrolled, and rapid ingestion or eating of large quantities of food over a short period of time, which is called binge eating, followed by some kind of temporary behaviour to prevent weight gain, like vomiting after eating, fasting, misuse of laxatives, and certain exercises, which are potentially harmful to the person's health. (Baron-2004)

Human Development = Heredity × Environment

• Life span development is the continuous process of growth and change from conception to death.
• It is lifelong, orderly, and includes both physical (growth) and qualitative (skills, behaviour) changes.
• Growth refers to physical changes, while development includes mental, emotional, and social changes.
• Human life is divided into stages like infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, each with specific features.
• Development occurs in three domains: physical, cognitive, and social-emotional.
• Studying development helps understand behaviour, guide children, and identify problems early.

• Development is a continuous process from conception to death, with no sudden breaks.
• It follows a similar sequence for all, but the speed differs for each individual.
• Development includes both physical (quantitative) and behavioural (qualitative) changes.
• Different parts of the body and abilities develop at different rates.
• Development moves from general to specific and from simple to complex skills.
• All areas of development (physical, mental, and emotional) are interrelated.
• Development is influenced by both heredity and environment.

• Development is lifelong and involves physical, mental, emotional, and social growth.
• Biological factors like intelligence, hormones, nutrition, and gender affect the pace of development.
• Environmental factors such as sunlight, health, culture, and living conditions play a big role in growth.
• Social and emotional factors such as family support and sibling influence affect confidence and learning.
• A child’s development improves with good food, care, and education, but slows with illness, stress, or poor conditions.

• Life span development is a continuous process from birth to death, with childhood being the most important stage.
• Early childhood experiences strongly shape personality, behaviour, and emotional health.
• A positive environment and good parenting build confidence, security, and social skills.
• Strong attachment helps emotional stability, while poor attachment can cause fear and anxiety.
• Negative childhood experiences can lead to developmental delays, low self-esteem, and long-term problems.

• Heredity refers to traits passed from parents through genes, such as height, intelligence, and behaviour.
• The environment includes factors like family, school, nutrition, and experiences that influence development.
• Heredity gives potential, while environment decides how much of that potential develops.
• Growth and behaviour are the result of the interaction between heredity and environment.
• Francis Galton believed traits like intelligence and personality are inherited from parents.

• DNA stores genetic information and controls traits.
• It has a double helix structure with A–T and G–C base pairing.
• Genes are DNA segments; chromosomes carry many genes (23 pairs in humans).
• Gene expression: DNA → mRNA → Protein.
• DNA replicates, passes traits, and controls body functions.

• Hereditary transmission is the passing of traits from parents to children through genes at conception.
• A zygote is formed when a sperm and an egg combine, carrying all the hereditary information.
• Each child receives 23 chromosomes from each parent, making a total of 46.
• Genes (made of DNA) control physical and some mental traits, such as height, eye colour, and behaviour.
• Each child gets a unique combination of genes, so siblings are different from each other.
• Traits are fixed at conception and remain unchanged throughout life.
• Identical twins are the only ones with the same genes, while others are genetically different.

• Sex determination is decided at fertilisation when sperm meets the egg.
• Females have XX chromosomes, while males have XY chromosomes.
• The mother always provides an X chromosome, while the father provides either X or Y.
• X + X results in a girl, and X + Y results in a boy.
• The father’s sperm determines the sex of the child, and the chances of a boy or a girl are equal.

• Heredity passes physical and mental traits from parents through genes and chromosomes.
• It strongly influences physical features like height, skin colour, and body structure.
• Physiological functions such as blood pressure and some health conditions are also influenced by heredity.
• Certain diseases and disorders (like diabetes or Down syndrome) can be inherited.
• Heredity also plays a role in intelligence and mental disorders, but environment is equally important.

• Intelligence is the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
• It involves thinking rationally and dealing effectively with the environment.
• Intelligence is multi-dimensional, not limited to academic marks.
• It is shaped by both heredity and environment.
• It includes different abilities like logical, linguistic, social, and practical skills.
• Intelligence helps in academic success and everyday problem-solving.

• Heredity provides basic traits and potential, such as intelligence and physical features.
• The environment includes factors like family, education, and nutrition that shape development.
• Both heredity and environment work together to influence personality and behaviour.
• Heredity sets the limit (potential), while the environment decides how much it develops.
• A proper environment helps a person achieve their full inherited potential.

• Meaning: Heredity is the passing of traits (physical & mental) from parents to children through genes.
• Pintner’s View: Heredity sets potential; environment helps develop it, but cannot create new abilities.
• Pearson’s Research: Found strong inheritance of both physical and mental traits, like intelligence.
• Role in Development: Heredity influences looks, intelligence, behavior, and emotional tendencies.
• Modern View: Heredity and environment work together—genes give capacity, environment shapes its use.

• Human development is influenced by both heredity (genes) and environment (experiences).
• Heredity provides potential, while the environment decides how much that potential develops.
• Studies by John B. Watson showed strong environmental influence, but his view was considered extreme.
• Research studies found that both heredity and environment are important for intelligence and behaviour.
• Twin and adoption studies show genes influence abilities, but environment shapes behaviour and habits.
• Early childhood (first 5–7 years) is very important for brain and personality development.
• Modern view: heredity and environment work together and cannot be separated.

• A child’s development is shaped by their environment and interactions.
• Five systems: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem.
• All systems are connected—a change in one affects others.
• The theory shows the importance of real-life surroundings like family, school, and culture.
• The Bioecological Model (PPCT) adds biology and time to explain development.

• Bronfenbrenner’s theory says a child’s development is shaped by five layers of environment:
• Microsystem – Direct contact (family, school, friends)
• Mesosystem – Connections (e.g., parent–teacher meetings)
• Exosystem – Indirect effects (e.g., parents’ job stress)
• Macrosystem – Culture, values, and society
• Chronosystem – Life changes over time (e.g., divorce, technology)
• He later added biology (the Bioecological Model), saying that both genes and the environment affect development.

• A child’s growth is shaped by family, school, community, and daily experiences.
• Poverty harms development, so helping poor families improves children’s well-being.
• Families, schools, and communities guide a child’s behaviour and learning.
• Early years (first 5–6) are crucial for personality and healthy habits.
• Programs like Head Start support children and parents for better development.

• Children use technology for learning, games, and videos, but too much can harm growth.
• Excess screen time can reduce physical activity, outdoor play, and real-life conversations.
• Overuse may cause health issues, attention problems, emotional stress, and aggressive behaviour.
• Technology is helpful when adults guide children to safe, educational content with limited screen time.
• Bronfenbrenner’s theory shows children develop through interactions with family, school, and society, influencing research and real-life child development.

• Infancy lasts from birth to 2 years and includes two stages: Neonatal (0–14 days) and Babyhood (2 weeks–2 years).
• In the neonatal stage, the baby adjusts to breathing and feeding, with uncontrolled body movements and weight loss.
• In babyhood, the child begins gaining muscle control, learns basic skills like eating and walking, and shows independence.
• Example: A baby may try to dress or feed themselves and say, “I’ll do it myself!”

• The prenatal period is the fastest growth phase before birth.
• All organs begin forming in the mother’s womb.
• Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2): Fertilization happens, and the cell divides and implants in the uterus.
• Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8): Major organs begin forming; the heart starts beating.
• Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40): The baby grows, organs mature, and the body prepares for birth.

• A newborn’s first cry is a reflex that helps the baby start breathing and adjust to life outside the womb.
• Crying at birth clears the lungs and is essential for survival; if a baby doesn’t cry, doctors may help stimulate it.
• Initially, crying is reflexive; later, babies cry to express needs.
• Newborns sleep 18–20 hours a day in short, broken periods, which helps restore energy and balance.
• As babies grow, sleep gradually decreases: 3 weeks ≈ 15 hours, 1 year ≈ 12 hours, becoming more regular.

• At birth, a baby’s heart and lungs start working immediately to adjust to life outside the womb.
• The heart beats about 130–150 times per minute.
• Breathing is quick, regular, and essential for survival.
• Doctors check the baby’s heart rate and breathing at birth to ensure they are normal.

• Newborns are warm in the womb but need blankets or clothes to adjust to outside temperatures.
• Sucking is a natural reflex, and hunger is vital for survival; babies signal hunger with body movements and contractions.
• Newborns can swallow and digest food, including urination and bowel movements, soon after birth.
• Babies eat about 7 times a day in the first week, reducing to 5–6 times after 4 weeks, with larger amounts per feed.
• Breastfeeding is best for health, immunity, and emotional comfort; feeding should follow the baby’s hunger cues.

• Vision: Newborns respond to light; eye coordination improves within weeks; they can see 8 inches away at birth and track moving lights.
• Hearing: Hearing is present but poor at birth; neonates respond to loud, rhythmic sounds (e.g., heartbeat, lullabies); sensitivity improves quickly.
• Smell & Taste: Basic smell and taste present at birth; babies prefer sweet, avoid bitter; facial reactions show preferences.
• Pain & Temperature: Babies react to hot/cold and pain (e.g., pulling away); sensitivity grows over days; girls may show more pain response.
• Emotions & Movement: Early emotions are general (excitement); movements are mass activity (head, limbs); reflexes help adapt behaviour.

• Newborns notice temperature changes but cannot adjust them as adults can.
• Babies react strongly to heat or cold, showing movements to avoid discomfort.
• Cold objects on the body make babies move their legs or head away.
• Individual reactions vary; some babies respond strongly, others mildly.

• Newborns feel pain; facial areas are most sensitive, and limb reactions develop within days.
• The initial pain response is simple withdrawal, later followed by crying and pulling away.
• Female infants may react more strongly to pain than males, and quick pain reactions can lead to faster development of fears.
• Emotional responses at birth are generalised; some psychologists say fear, anger, and love are inherited, while others believe emotions are learned.
• Infants grow head-to-toe (cephalocaudal), show large, undirected movements, and have reflexes such as withdrawal, smiling, and vocalisation.

• Girls usually develop faster and more uniformly than boys, even before birth.
• Girls have more body fat, less water, and less muscle compared to boys, who show more variety.
• At age three, most girls have the same number of teeth, while boys show differences.
• Girls’ growth is more predictable; boys’ growth is less uniform and harder to predict.
• Emotional and physical development is influenced by both heredity and environment.

• Reflex activities, like rooting, sucking, grasping, and the Moro reflex, are automatic and present at birth.
• Maturation-based activities, such as holding the head up, rolling, sitting, crawling, and walking, appear naturally as the baby grows.
• Learned or complex activities, like smiling, playing, and following routines, develop through experience and interaction.
• Infants have basic needs: hunger, thirst, sleep, and elimination, and some independent needs like breathing and sensing.
• Routine and interaction help babies develop skills and behaviours, such as sitting by six months and playing by eight months.

• Newborns can sense the world through sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste, but cannot understand it as adults do.
• Perception is organising sensations into ideas using past experience and learning.
• Babies follow moving objects with their eyes and recognise faces early on.
• Perceptual skills grow with experience; babies gradually learn to distinguish themselves from other objects.
• By 6 months, babies show preferences for colours and tastes, e.g., red bottles with sweet milk.

• Children learn to control their actions and begin to influence their surroundings.
• From ages 2–5, they start making friends and learning manners.
• Ages 6–12 bring growth in social and moral understanding.
• By 12–13, group activities and teamwork become very important.

• Adolescence is the stage between childhood and adulthood (ages 10–19), marked by fast physical and emotional changes.
• It has three stages: Early (10–14), Middle (15–17), and Late (18–19), each with different body and thinking developments.
• Puberty brings sexual and physical changes due to hormones—testosterone in boys and oestrogen in girls.
• Physical changes include growth in height, changes in body shape, changes in voice, and increased sweat/oil production.
• Emotional and social changes include mood swings, seeking independence, peer pressure, and identity formation.

• Infants show automatic motor responses due to natural growth (maturation), without prior learning.
• Cephalo-caudal development: control grows from head to toe (head → arms → legs).
• Proximo-distal development: control grows from the centre outward (shoulders/arms → hands/fingers).
• Physical growth after birth is rapid in neural, skeletal, genital, lymphoid, and respiratory systems, especially in early childhood and puberty.
• Physical growth affects behaviour, social experiences, interests, attitudes, and personality, with hormones influencing adolescence.

• Starts Early: The Nervous system begins 3 weeks after conception.
• Prenatal Growth: Rapid growth in the first 8 weeks; the head is large.
• Postnatal Growth: Fast development in the first 3–4 years after birth.
• Brain Weight at Birth: 1/8 of body weight.
• Brain Weight Later: 1/18 at 10 yrs, 1/25 at 15 yrs.

• Motor development is how babies learn to move and control muscles.
• It follows two patterns: head-to-toe and center-to-limbs.
• It helps babies sit, walk, run, and hold things — making them more independent.
• Reflexes are automatic actions (like sucking or grasping) that protect babies and help them survive.
• Babies start with random full-body movements that later become specific and controlled.
• Reflexes such as the grasping reflex and Moro reflex disappear as they grow and learn.

• Locomotor development is how children learn to walk and move.
• It allows them to explore, play, and become independent.
• It begins with crawling or creeping, then standing and walking, usually by 12–15 months.
• Researchers such as Ames, McGraw, and Burnside studied the stages of crawling and locomotion.
• Learning to walk is a big milestone that makes families proud and happy.

• Bipedal locomotion means walking on two legs, a key human skill learned in steps.
• Babies go through four stages before walking:
• Rolling Over (1.8–5.8 months) – from back to stomach.
• Sitting Up (2.5–8.3 months) – balance in sitting position.
• Standing (8.1–9 months) – holding furniture to stand.
• Walking (8.8–13.8 months) – from first steps to smooth walking.
• Each stage builds muscle control and balance needed for walking.

• Motor skills help with everyday tasks and develop through both heredity (genes) and environment (practice and objects).
• Children first learn basic movements like grabbing, crawling, and holding, then build complex skills like writing or building.
• Genetics is important early, but the environment (toys, tools, objects) shapes later motor skill development.
• Parents play a key role by providing objects and encouraging children to use them.
• Differences in children’s motor skills mainly come from practice and experience, though children can catch up if given opportunities later.

• Object permanence is the understanding that things still exist even when they cannot be seen or heard.
• It shows that a baby’s memory and thinking abilities are developing.
• Jean Piaget said it usually develops between 9–12 months.
• New research suggests babies as young as five months may show early signs of it.
• It can be seen when babies expect hidden objects or faces (like in peekaboo) to return.

• Meaning: Motor development = muscle control for big & small movements.
• 0–3 Months: Lifts head (gross), grasps finger (fine).
• 4–6 Months: Rolls over (gross), holds toys (fine).
• 7–9 Months: Crawls (gross), transfers objects (fine).
• 10–12 Months: Walks assisted (gross), picks up small items (fine).

• Jean Piaget explained that children’s thinking develops in stages as they grow.
• Learning happens through adaptation, using two processes: assimilation (using old ideas) and accommodation (changing ideas).
• The four stages are: Sensorimotor (0–2 years), Preoperational (2–7 years), Concrete Operational (7–11 years), and Formal Operational (12+ years).
• In each stage, children understand and solve problems differently, based on their mental development.
• A child calling a leaf a butterfly shows assimilation, and learning the difference shows accommodation.

• The sensory-motor stage (0–2 years) is when babies learn through senses and movements, not language.
• In the Reflex stage (0–1 month), babies respond with basic actions like sucking and grasping.
• From 1–8 months, they repeat actions for fun or effects (e.g., thumb sucking, shaking toys).
• Between 8–18 months, they begin to solve simple problems and try new actions (e.g., moving objects, experimenting).
• By 18–24 months, babies begin to imagine and pretend, showing early signs of thinking with symbols.

• Ages 4–7: Intuitive thought develops, but still limited logical thinking.
• Children start using logic based on what they see and understand words like “more” and “less.”
• They can group and classify objects, but still focus on one feature (centration).
• Thinking has limits—irreversibility, lack of conservation, and egocentric speech.
• Language becomes more social; children begin using pronouns and sharing ideas.
• Family, culture, and environment affect their cognitive and language development.

• Children understand that changing the shape of something doesn’t change its amount (conservation).
• They can group things in more than one way, like by color and size (classification).
• They can put things in order, like shortest to tallest (seriation).
• They know some actions can be undone in their mind (reversibility).
• They can think about many things at once, like height and width together (decentration).

• The word “emotion” means to move or stir up, giving energy to act.
• Emotions motivate action, like running when scared.
• They are brief, sudden, and cause changes in body and mind.
• Strong emotions have biological value, helping face danger or mask pain.
• Emotions are expressed through facial expressions, voice, and mood, but inner changes may be hidden.

• Newborn babies show general excitement, not clear or specific emotions.
• Psychologists gave different labels to the same reactions, showing emotions are unclear at birth.
• This disagrees with John B. Watson, who believed babies are born with fixed emotions like fear and rage.
• Emotions become clearer with age, developing from simple reactions (crying, smiling) to complex feelings (joy, affection).
• By 2 years, children show more mature emotions like love, happiness, and strong preferences.

• At birth, infants show only general excitement without specific emotions.
• By 6 months, basic emotions like fear, anger, delight, disgust, and distress become visible.
• By 1 year of age, most emotions become distinct and specific (emotion differentiation).
• After 2 years, children begin to experience and express grief.
• Between 2 and 7 years, language development triggers new emotions, such as verbal anger and fear.

• Maturation is the natural growth process controlled by genes, not learning or experience.
• Emotions develop gradually as the brain and body grow, becoming clearer and better controlled with age.
• Arnold Gesell said emotional development follows a natural pattern, while Florence Goodenough showed it can occur even without normal sensory experiences.
• The frontal lobe helps control emotions, and hormones from glands like the adrenal glands influence emotional reactions.
• Emotional development progresses from basic emotions in infancy to better self-control and understanding of others in later childhood.

• Emotional development in children is influenced by both inherited traits and environmental learning.
• Babies start with general emotions and gradually learn specific emotions through experience.
• Children learn emotions by imitating parents, family members, and others around them.
• Emotional responses can be conditioned by associating events or objects with feelings (e.g., fear after a bad experience).
• John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment showed that fear can be learned through association, not just inherited.

• Attachment is an emotional bond making a child feel safe, loved, and close to a caregiver.
• It begins in infancy, with babies seeking physical contact like hugs and cuddles.
• Babies prefer familiar people and may cry or avoid strangers.
• Attachment is positive, involving warmth, affection, and a sense of belonging.
• The bond with the mother/caregiver is usually strongest, but children can attach to other caregivers if they provide comfort.

• Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver, expressed through clinging, seeking comfort, and seeking closeness.
• Harlow’s experiment showed that infant monkeys preferred soft, comforting “mothers” over those that only provided food—proving that emotional comfort is key in attachment.
• Bowlby believed attachment is inborn; children seek caregivers more when frightened or punished, which strengthens the bond.
• In humans, attachment grows through daily loving care—talking, touching, feeding, and comforting by the mother or main caregiver.
• Attachment is two-way, changing with age and experience, and is shaped by both the child’s and caregiver’s responses and actions.

• Attachment is a strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver that provides safety and comfort.
• It develops as the child learns that the caregiver meets their needs and reduces discomfort.
• Through repeated care, the child begins to see the mother as special and a source of security.
• Positive early experiences help the child form attachments with others as well.
• Poor or negative care can lead to weak attachment, causing anxiety, avoidance, and social difficulties.

• Attachment behaviour is the bond that gives the baby comfort and security.
• Care and interaction during feeding matter more than the feeding method.
• Holding the baby gently during feeding helps strong attachment.
• Demand feeding supports attachment better than fixed-time feeding.
• Babies prefer familiar caregivers and can attach to others who care for them.

• Mary Ainsworth created the Strange Situation Test (1965) to study how babies form emotional bonds with caregivers.
• The test has eight episodes involving separations and reunions between the baby, mother, and a stranger.
• It observes how babies react when left alone, with a stranger, and when the mother returns.
• The test identifies attachment types: Secure, Anxious-Avoidant, and Anxious-Ambivalent.
• A securely attached baby is happy and calms quickly when the mother returns; others may avoid or resist contact.

• Affiliation is the child’s need to feel close, loved, and connected to the caregiver.
• Warm and consistent care helps the child feel safe, trust others, and develop good social skills.
• Lack of warmth or care can lead to mistrust, poor social behaviour, and difficulty mixing with others.
• Strong attachment leads to friendliness, cooperation, and following social rules.
• Social development happens through learning good behaviour, following rules, and building positive attitudes.
• Interaction with family, peers, and group activities helps improve social skills.

• Social behaviour begins early, with babies responding to faces, crying, and showing interest in adults.
• By 2 months, babies use crying and smiling to communicate and get attention.
• Around 2 years, children show possessiveness, jealousy, and strong reactions to toys and caregivers.
• From 2–4 years, children depend on one or two close people for love and affection.
• By 3 years, imaginative play develops, linking social life, language, and emotional needs; warm parent-child bonds support healthy social development.

• In the first month, babies react to human voices with sucking movements.
• By 2–3 months, babies smile back, recognise the mother, and show interest in people.
• At 5–6 months, babies respond to smiles and scolding, know familiar voices, and fear strangers.
• Between 6–9 months, babies start social interactions with other children and copy simple actions.
• By 9–18 months, babies fight for toys, show negativism, and prefer playing with children over objects.

• At 18–24 months, children start showing interest in other kids and join in simple games.
• They play side by side or share toys, learning basic social interaction.
• Children copy daily routines like feeding, bathing, and dressing to learn social skills.
• Toilet training is learned by observing and imitating others.
• Watching and imitating helps children develop social understanding and cooperation.

• Peers are friends and classmates who help in learning social skills and building personality.
• They influence behaviour, attitudes, and values based on interaction and communication.
• Good peer relationships provide emotional support, security, and cooperation.
• Lack of real peers can lead to loneliness and poor social development.
• Children without peers may become less social and miss learning teamwork and cooperation.

• Negativism is common at ages 2–5, when children say “no” to assert themselves.
• Rivalry and quarrels appear over toys or attention, but often end in reconciliation.
• Teasing and bullying involve annoying or hurting others physically or verbally.
• Cooperation grows by ages 3–4, with children sharing, taking turns, and following rules.
• Ascendant behaviour occurs when a child tries to dominate others, often due to insecurity.
• Sympathy develops as children show care for others’ feelings and needs.
• Social skills like approval-seeking, foresight, and responsibility help with friendships and independence.

• Gender identity is the awareness of being a boy/man or a girl/woman.
• It starts around age 2–3 and becomes stronger as the child grows.
• Parents and family give the first and strongest gender messages through words, dress, toys, and play rules.
• Culture assigns different roles, customs, and expectations to boys and girls, and these are passed on through socialisation.
• Children learn these roles by observing, copying, being rewarded or punished, and by their growing thinking ability.
• Traditional cultures strictly enforce gender rules; progressive cultures are more flexible and less punishing.

• Gender roles are roles and responsibilities given to men and women by society.
• These roles differ across cultures, times, and family conditions.
• Traditionally, women are seen as soft and submissive and are pushed into soft jobs and full housework.
• Many working women face a double burden: a job outside plus full house duties.
• Some women leaders and professionals have proved that women can do difficult and powerful jobs.
• Children learn gender roles very early, from parents, family, and customs.
• Culture and patriarchy make it hard to change these roles, but changes are taking place.
• More men are now sharing housework, and more women are entering public and professional life, offering hope of greater equality.

• Meaning: Gender typing is how children learn roles and behaviors considered right for boys or girls in their culture.
• Influences: Parents, family, society, and culture teach gender roles through actions and expectations.
• Examples: Boys are praised for sports, girls for helping at home; toys and career choices are often gendered.
• Stereotypes: Long-term gender typing creates fixed ideas about what each gender should do.
• Change is Possible: Supportive families and society can help break these stereotypes (e.g., girls in sports, boys in dance).

• Meaning: Gender stereotypes are fixed, often false beliefs about how males and females should behave, affecting real understanding of individuals.
• Examples: Men are seen as strong and dominant; women as emotional and submissive—these generalizations limit personal growth and opportunities.
• Impact: Stereotyping leads to discrimination, the loss of talent, unequal treatment, and slows socio-economic development.
• Change is Possible: Education, awareness, training, and social change can reduce stereotypes and promote gender equality.
• Role of Society: Parents, teachers, and media must avoid spreading biased ideas and support equal opportunities for both genders.

• Teenagers experience natural sexual feelings influenced by their minds, emotions, and environment.
• Boys often express sexual urges more openly, while girls may hide or focus on love and self-esteem.
• Ignoring or suppressing sexual feelings can cause stress, anxiety, or risky behaviour.
• Culture, family beliefs, and social surroundings shape adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviour.
• Support from parents, teachers, and friends, including calm listening and counselling if needed, is important.

• Adolescence is a transitional period with rapid physical, emotional, and social changes.
• Teens experience mood swings, sensitivity, and worries about appearance or health.
• Socially, friends gain importance, leading to arguments with parents and generation gaps.
• Risky behaviour and peer pressure can influence actions and decisions.
• Warning signs include depression, sleep/eating problems, isolation, drug use, or self-harm.

• Many gender differences (e.g., strength, verbal skills, aggression) are culturally created, not fully biologically proven.
• Boys show more overt aggression; girls may show covert aggression, but sociability and achievement are often similar.
• Society enforces different rules for dress and behaviour, shaping attitudes and personality from childhood.
• Male-dominated societies limit women’s independence, decision-making, and mobility, often justified by tradition or “protection.”
• Extreme gender inequalities exist in some cultures, such as harmful practices against girls.
• Rising education, awareness, and empowerment are increasing women’s economic independence and rights.
• Children learn gender-typed behaviour (boys-masculine, girls-feminine) between 15 months and 3 years, mostly by observing their family; these attitudes can be revised in adulthood with experience and knowledge.

• Delinquency: Wrong acts by teens under 18 due to stress or problems.
• Causes: Broken home, bad parenting, poverty, peer pressure, mental issues.
• Features: Happens in teens, impulsive actions, influenced by friends.
• Handling: Special courts, counselling, reformatory homes, expert help.
• Prevention: Supportive parents/teachers, group activities, better living, and education.

• A strong conscience develops when a child closely identifies with caring parents.
• Early behaviour is guided by the pleasure principle—self-centred and focused on personal needs.
• Preschool and childhood stages show rapid development of conscience and morality.
• Children gradually shift from self-centred thinking to caring about others, sharing, and making sacrifices.
• Moral development is influenced by family, school, peers, and religious institutions.
• Children learn social rules and good habits like respect, kindness, cleanliness, and proper manners.
• By 4–5 years, morality becomes more general, guiding behaviour across many situations.

• Adolescents may use drugs and alcohol for pleasure or to cope with emotional and social problems.
• Peer pressure is a major reason for starting substance use.
• High-risk adolescents are often impulsive, aggressive, anxious, or depressed.
• Warning signs include changes in behaviour, risky actions, and withdrawal from family or friends.
• Substance abuse gives short-term relief but harms health, behaviour, and overall life in the long term.

• Eating disorders are serious problems related to eating habits and body image, often starting in adolescence.
• Anorexia nervosa involves fear of weight gain, very little eating, and severe weight loss.
• Bulimia nervosa involves binge eating followed by purging like vomiting or using laxatives.
• Binge eating disorder involves repeated uncontrolled eating without purging.
• Other types include pica (eating non-food items) and rumination disorder (re-chewing food).

• Conscience, also called the superego (Freud), is the inner voice that tells us what is right or wrong.
• It is shaped by parents, teachers, media, books, and social surroundings.
• Children develop conscience through experience, imitation, and advice from trusted adults.
• A warm, loving mother–child bond and love-oriented discipline help build a strong conscience.
• According to Skinner, rewards for good behaviour and withdrawal of love for bad behaviour teach children moral values.

• Conscience is the inner sense of right and wrong, and morality means behaving in a socially accepted way.
• Children develop a strong conscience when they have a warm, loving bond with parents (Sears & Maccoby, 1957).
• A lack of affection and identification with parents can weaken the conscience and lead to poor values or delinquent behaviour.
• Morality begins through imitation—children copy elders and learn to avoid socially wrong actions.
• Before age 12, children’s moral views are rigid and hard to change if they believe something is wrong or unjust.

• Young children follow rules strictly and obey adults without question.
• Around 9–12 years old, children begin thinking for themselves and judging actions by their intentions, not just their results.
• Piaget described two types of morality:
• Heteronomous (rules are fixed; focus on punishment).
• Autonomous (rules can change; focus on intention).
• Family, religion, and friends shape a child’s sense of right and wrong.
• A well-developed conscience helps control bad behavior; poor moral development may lead to lying, stealing, or aggression.

• Cognitive maturity is needed to develop a clear sense of right and wrong.
• Moral growth includes moving from rigid rules to flexible thinking, in which intentions matter more than actions.
• Example: Killing in self-defence or stealing food due to hunger isn’t judged the same as doing it for selfish reasons.
• Moral dilemmas (e.g., stealing to save a life) help people think deeply and grow morally.
• Morality is influenced by culture, but some moral values are shared across the world.

• Stage 1: Right and wrong are based on punishment—avoid getting into trouble.
• Stage 2: Actions are right if they benefit self or others—simple give and take.
• Stage 3: Be “good” to please close people like parents or friends.
• Stage 4: Follow rules and laws to keep society in order.
• Stage 5: Focus on human rights—laws can be changed if unfair.
• Stage 6 (later removed): Decisions based on universal ethical values.
• Stage 7: Morality comes from personal ethical beliefs.

• Height, weight, and appearance influence a teenager’s social acceptance and feelings.
• Late physical development can lead to increased attention-seeking behaviour and a fear of rejection.
• Early development facilitates easier social adjustment, but it can also cause anxiety about standing out.
• Personality in adolescence is shaped by how others react to these physical changes.

• Adolescence is the peak for reasoning, maths, and problem-solving.
• Mental test scores at this age predict adult performance.
• Imagination is strongest between 19–35 years.
• Girls excel in language; boys excel in maths and spatial tasks.
• Piaget: Adolescents shift from concrete to formal thinking, imagining possibilities and “what if” scenarios.