Topics
Rotational Dynamics
- Rotational Dynamics
- Circular Motion and Its Characteristics
- Kinematics of Rotational Motion About a Fixed Axis
- Non-uniform circular motion
- Dynamic of Circular Motion
- Centrifugal Forces
- Applications of Uniform Circular Motion
- Vehicle Along a Horizontal Circular Track
- Well (or Woll) of Death
- Vehicle on o Banked Rood
- Conical Pendulum
- Vertical Circular Motion
- Point Moss Undergoing Vertical Circular Motion Under Gravity
- Sphere of Death
- Moment of Inertia as an Analogous Quantity for Mass
- Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Disc
- Radius of Gyration
- Theorems of Perpendicular and Parallel Axes
- Angular Momentum or Moment of Linear Momentum
- Expression for Torque in Terms of Moment of Inertia
- Conservation of Angular Momentum
- Rolling Motion
11th Std
Vectors
- Vector Analysis
- Vector Operations>Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
- Vector Operations>Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
- Vector Operations>Triangle Law for Vector Addition
- Vector Operations>Law of parallelogram of vectors
- Resolution of Vectors
- Multiplication of Vectors
- Scalar Product(Dot Product)
- Vector Product (Cross Product)
- Characteristics of Vector Product
- Concept of Calculus
- Differential Calculus
- Integral Calculus
Mechanical Properties of Fluids
- Fluid and Its Properties
- Pressure of liquid
- Pressure Due to a Liquid Column
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Absolute Pressure and Gouge Pressure
- Hydrostatic Paradox
- Pascal’s Law
- Applications of Pascal's Law > Hydraulic lift
- Applications of Pascal's Law > Hydraulic Brakes
- Pressure Measurement
- Mercury Barometer (Simple Barometer)
- Open Tube Manometer
- Surface Tension
- Molecular Theory of Surface Tension
- Surface Tension and Surface Energy
- Angle of Contact
- Effect of Impurity and Temperature on Surface Tension
- Excess Pressure Across the Free Surface of a Liquid
- Explanation of Formation of Drops and Bubbles
- Capillarity and Capillary Action
- Fluids in Motion
- Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number
- Viscosity
- Coefficient of viscosity
- Stokes’ Law
- Terminal Velocity
- Continuous and Discontinuous Functions
- Bernoulli's Equation
- Applications of Bernoulli's equation > Speed of efflux
- Applications of Bernoulli's Equation > Ventury Tube
- Applications of Bernoulli's Equation > Lifting up of on Aeroplane
- Applications of Bernoulli's Equation > Working of on Atomizer
- Applications of Bernoulli's Equation > Blowing off of Roofs by Stormy Wind
- Archimedes' Principle
Error Analysis
12th Std
Motion in a Plane
- Introduction of Motion in a Plane
- Rectilinear Motion
- Displacement
- Path Length
- Average Velocity
- Average Speed
- Instantaneous Velocity
- Instantaneous Speed
- Position-time, Velocity-time and Acceleration-time Graphs
- Acceleration in Linear Motion
- Relative Velocity
- Motion in Two Dimensions - Motion in a Plane
- Average and Instantaneous Velocities
- Acceleration in a Plane
- Equations of Motion in a Plane with Constant Acceleration
- Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions
- Projectile Motion
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)
- Key Parameters of Circular Motion
- Centripetal Acceleration
- Conical Pendulum
Kinetic Theory of Gases and Radiation
- Gases and Its Characteristics
- Classification of Gases: Real Gases and Ideal Gases
- Mean Free Path
- Pressure of Ideal Gas
- Root Mean Square (RMS) Speed
- Interpretation of Temperature in Kinetic Theory
- Law of Equipartition of Energy
- Degrees of Freedom
- Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
- Specific Heat Capacity
- Moyer's Relation
- Monatomic Gases
- Diatomic Gases
- Polyatomic Gases
- Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission of Heat Radiation
- Interaction of Thermal Radiation and Matter
- Perfect Blackbody
- Ferry's Blackbody
- Emission of Heat Radiation
- Coefficient of Emission or Emissivity
- Kirchhoff’s Law of Heat Radiation and Its Theoretical Proof
- Spectral Distribution of Blackbody Radiation
- Wien's Displacement Law
- Stefan-boltzmann Law of Radiation
- Prevost's Theory of Heat Exchange
Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamics
- Thermal Equilibrium
- Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- Heat, Internal Energy and Work
- Internal Energy (U)
- Heat
- Internal Energy and Change in Internal Energy
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic state variables
- Thermodynamic Equilibrium
- Thermodynamic State Variables and Equation of State
- The p-V diagram
- Thermodynamic Process
- Work Done During a Thermodynamic Process
- Heat Added During a Thermodynamic Process
- Classification of Thermodynamic Processes
- Reversible and Irreversible Processes
- Isothermal Processes
- Isobaric process
- Isochoric process
- Adiabatic Processes
- Cyclic Process
- Free Expansion
- Heat Engine
- The Heat Engine Cycle and the p-V Diagram
- Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
- Heat Flow from a Colder Region to a Hotter Region
- Refrigerator
- Performance of a Refrigerator
- Air Conditioner
- Heat Pump
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Carnot Cycle and Carnot Engine
- Sterling Cycle
Laws of Motion
- Introduction to Laws of Motion
- Aristotle’s Fallacy
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
- Newton's First Law of Motion
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion
- Newton's Third Law of Motion
- Types of Forces>Real and Pseudo Forces
- Inertial and Non-inertial Frames of Reference
- Types of Forces>Fundamental Forces in Nature
- Types of Forces>Contact and Non-Contact Forces
- Types of Forces>Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
- Types of Forces>Work Done by a Variable Force
- Work Energy Theorem
- Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
- Collisions
- Perfectly Inelastic Collision
- Coefficient of Restitution e
- Expressions for Final Velocities in Elastic Head-On Collision
- Loss of Kinetic Energy in Perfectly Inelastic Head-On Collision
- Collision in Two Dimensions
- Impulse of a Force
- Necessity of Defining Impulse
- Rotational Analogue of a Force: Moment of a Force Or Torque
- Couple and Its Torque
- Proof of Independence of the Axis of Rotation
- Mechanical Equilibrium
- States of Equilibrium
- Centre of Mass>Mathematical Understanding of Centre of Mass
- Centre of Mass>Velocity of Centre of Mass
- Centre of Mass>Acceleration of Centre of Mass
- Centre of Mass>Characteristics of Centre of Mass
- Centre of Gravity
Oscillations
- Oscillations
- Explanation of Periodic Motion
- Linear Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)
- Differential Equation of Linear S.H.M.
- Acceleration (a), Velocity (v) and Displacement (x) of S.H.M.
- Amplitude (A), Period (T) and Frequency (N) of S.H.M.
- Combination of Springs
- Reference Circle Method
- Phase in S.H.M.
- Graphical Representation of S.H.M.
- Composition of Two S.H.M.’S Having Same Period and Along Same Line
- The Energy of a Particle Performing S.H.M.
- Simple Pendulum
- Angular S.H.M. and It's Differential Equation
- Damped Oscillations
- Free Oscillations, Forced Oscillations and Resonance Oscillations
Gravitation
- Concept of Gravitation
- Kepler’s Laws
- Law of Orbit or Kepler's First Law
- Law of Areas or Kepler's Second Law
- Law of Periods or Kepler's Third Law
- Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation
- Acceleration Due to Gravity (Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration)
- Variation in the Acceleration>Variation in Gravity with Altitude
- Variation in the Acceleration>Variation in Gravity with Depth
- Variation in the Acceleration>Variation in Gravity with Latitude and Rotation of the Earth
- Variation in the Acceleration>Effect of the shape of the Earth
- Gravitational Potential Energy
- Escape Velocity
- Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy
- Connection of Potential Energy Formula with mgh
- Potential and Potential Difference
- Earth Satellites
- Projection of Satellite
- Weightlessness in a Satellite
- Time Period of Satellite
- Energy Associated with Satellite
- Critical Velocity
Thermal Properties of Matter
- Thermal Properties of Matter
- Temperature and Heat
- Measurement of Temperature
- Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature
- Ideal Gas Equation
- Thermal Expansion
- Linear Expansion
- Areal Expansion
- Volume Expansion
- Relation Between Coefficient of Expansion
- Specific Heat Capacity
- Specific Heat Capacity of Solids and Liquids
- Specific Heat Capacity of Gas
- Heat Equation
- Thermal Capacity
- Calorimetry
- Change of State
- Analysis of Observation>From Point A to B
- Analysis of Observation>From Point B to D
- Evaporation vs Boiling
- Boiling Point and Pressure
- Concept of Desublimation (Deposition)
- Phase Diagram
- Gas and Vapour
- Latent Heat
- Heat Transfer
- Conduction
- Thermal Conductivity
- Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity
- Thermal Resistance
- Applications of Thermal conductivity
- Convection
- Application of Convection
- Free and Forced Convection
- Radiation
- Newton’s Law of Cooling
Superposition of Waves
- Introduction to Superposition of Waves
- Progressive Waves
- Reflection of Waves
- Superposition of Waves
- Stationary Waves
- Formation of Stationary Waves on String
- Equation of Stationary Wave on a Stretched String
- Properties of Stationary Waves
- Comparison of Progressive Waves and Stationary Waves
- Free and Forced Vibrations
- Harmonics and Overtones
- End Correction
- Study of Vibrations of Air Columns
- Vibrations of Air Column in a Pipe Open at Both Ends
- Practical Determination of End Correction
- Vibrations Produced in a String
- Laws of a Vibrating String
- Sonometer
- Beats
- Characteristics of Sound
- Musical Instruments
Sound
- Sound Waves
- Types of Waves
- Common Properties of All Waves
- Transverse Waves
- Longitudinal Waves
- Mathematical Expression of a Wave
- The Speed of Travelling Waves
- Principle of Superposition of Waves
- Echo, Reverberation and Acoustics
- Qualities of Sound
- Doppler Effect
- Source Moving and Listener Stationary
- Listener Approaching a Stationary Source with Velocity
- Both Source and Listener are Moving
- Common Properties between Doppler Effect of Sound and Light
- Major Differences between Doppler Effects of Sound and Light
Wave Optics
- Introduction of Wave Optics
- Nature of Light
- Light as a Wave
- Huygens’ Theory
- Reflection of Light at a Plane Surface
- Refraction of Light at a Plane Boundary Between Two Media
- Polarization
- Interference
- Coherent and Incoherent Sources and Sustained Interference of Light
- Young's Double Slit Experiment and Expression for Fringe Width
- Conditions for Producing Steady Interference Pattern
- Methods for Obtaining Coherent Sources
- Optical Path
- Diffraction of Light
- Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction
- Experimental Set up for Fraunhofer Diffraction
- Fraunhofer Diffraction Due to a Single Slit
- Young’s Double Slit vs Single Slit
- Resolving Power
- Rayleigh’s Criterion
- Resolving Power of a Microscope and Telescope
Optics
- Fundamental Concepts of Light
- Nature of Light
- Ray Optics Or Geometrical Optics
- Cartesian Sign Convention
- Reflection of Light
- Reflection>Reflection from a Plane Surface
- Reflection>Reflection from Curved Mirrors
- Total Internal Reflection
- Applications of Total Internal Reflection
- Refraction at a Spherical Surface and Lenses
- Thin Lenses and Their Combination
- Refraction at a Single Spherical Surface
- Lens Makers' Equation
- Dispersion of Light
- Analysis of Prism
- Thin Prisms
- Some Natural Phenomena Due to Sunlight
- Defects of Lenses
- Optical Instruments
- Simple Microscope or a Reading Glass
- Compound Microscope
- Telescope
Electrostatics
- Concept of Electrostatics
- Gauss’s Law
- Application of Gauss' Law
- Electric Potential and Potential Difference
- Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge
- Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole
- Electric Field Due to a System of Charges
- Equipotential Surfaces
- Electrical Energy of Two Point Charges and of a Dipole in an Electrostatic Field
- Conductors and Insulators
- Free Charges and Bound Charges Inside a Conductor
- Dielectrics
- Electric Polarisation of Matter
- Capacitors and Capacitance
- Combination of Capacitors
- Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor with and Without Dielectric Medium Between the Plates
- Displacement Current
- Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
- Van De Graaff Generator
Current Electricity
Electrostatics
- Concept of Electrostatics
- Electric Charge
- Basic Properties of Electric Charge
- Additive Nature of Charge
- Quantization of Charge
- Conservation of Charge
- Force between Charges
- Coulomb’s Law
- Scalar Form of Coulomb’s Law
- Relative Permittivity or Dielectric Constant
- Definition of Unit Charge from the Coulomb’s Law
- Coulomb's Law in Vector Form
- Principle of Superposition
- Electric Field
- Electric Field Intensity Due to a Point-Charge
- Practical Way of Calculating Electric Field
- Electric Lines of Force
- Electric Flux
- Gauss’s Law
- Electric Dipole
- Couple Acting on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field
- Electric Intensity at a Point Due to an Electric Dipole
- Continuous Charge Distribution
Semiconductors
- Concept of Semiconductors
- Electrical Conduction in Solids
- Band Theory of Solids
- Intrinsic Semiconductor
- Extrinsic Semiconductor
- n-type semiconductor
- p-type semiconductor
- Charge neutrality of extrinsic semiconductors
- p-n Junction
- Basics of Semiconductor Devices
- Applications of Semiconductors and P-n Junction Diode
- Thermistor
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Semiconductor Devices
Magnetic Fields Due to Electric Current
- Magnetic Fields Due to Electric Current
- Magnetic force
- Cyclotron
- Helical Motion
- Magnetic Force on a Wire Carrying a Current
- Force on a Closed Circuit in a Magnetic Field
- Torque on a Current-Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field
- Magnetic Dipole Moment
- Magnetic Potential Energy of a Dipole
- Biot-Savart Law
- Force of Attraction Between Two Long Parallel Wires
- Magnetic Field Produced by a Current in a Circular Arc of a Wire
- Applications of Biot-Savart's Law > Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current-Carrying Loop
- Magnetic Lines for a Current Loop
- Ampere's Law
- Applications of Ampere’s Circuital Law > Magnetic Field of a Toroidal Solenoid
Electric Current Through Conductors
- A combination of resistors in both series and parallel
- Potential Difference and Emf of a Cell
- Cells, Emf, Internal Resistance
Magnetic Materials
- Magnetic Materials
- Torque Acting on a Magnetic Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field
- Origin of Magnetism in Materials
- Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity
- Magnetic Properties of Materials
- Diamagnetism
- Paramagnetism
- Ferromagnetism
- Effect of Temperature
- Hysteresis: Retentivity and Coercivity
- Permanent Magnet
- Magnetic Shielding
Electromagnetic Waves and Communication System
Electromagnetic Induction
- Electromagnetic Induction
- Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
- Lenz's Law
- Flux of the Field
- Motional Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)
- Induced Emf in a Stationary Coil in a Changing Magnetic Field
- Generators
- Back Emf and Back Torque
- Induction and Energy Transfer
- Eddy Currents or Foucault Currents
- Self Inductance
- Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
- Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
- Mutual Inductance
- Transformers
AC Circuits
- AC Circuits
- A.C. Generator
- Average and RMS Values
- Phasors
- Different Types of AC Circuits: AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor
- Different Types of AC Circuits: AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor
- Different Types of AC Circuits: AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor
- Different Types of AC Circuits: AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit
- Power in AC Circuit
- LC Oscillations
- Electric Resonance
- Sharpness of Resonance: Q Factor
- Choke Coil
Measurements
- Measurements
- Physical Quantities
- Unit and Its Types
- Unit Systems
- The International System of Units (SI)
- Rules and Conventions for Writing SI Units and Their Symbols
- Measurement of Length
- Measuring Smaller Distances
- Measuring Larger Distances
- Devices for Measuring Length
- Measurement of Mass
- Measurement of Time
- Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis
- Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in Measurement
- Errors in Measurements>Systematic Errors
- Estimation of Errors
- Combination of Errors
- Significant Figures
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
- Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
- The Photoelectric Effect
- Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
- Observations from Experiments on Photoelectric Effect
- Failure of Wove Theory on Photoelectric Effect
- Einstein's Postulate of the Photoelectric Equation
- Wave-particle Duality of Electromagnetic Radiation
- Photo Cell
- De Broglie Hypothesis
- Davisson and Germer Experiment
- Wave-particle Duality of Matter
- Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck's Quantum Theory of Radiation
Scalars and Vectors
Structure of Atoms and Nuclei
- Structure of the Atom and Nucleus
- Thomson’s Atomic Model
- Geiger-marsden Experiment
- Lord Rutherford’s Atomic model
- Atomic Spectra
- Bohr’s Atomic Model
- Radii of the Orbits
- Energy of the Electrons
- Limitations of Bohr's Model
- De Broglie's Explanation
- Atomic Nucleus
- Nuclear Binding Energy
- Radioactive Decays
- Law of Radioactive Decay
- Forms of Energy > Nuclear Energy
- Nuclear Fission
- Nuclear Fusion
- Dalton's Atomic Theory
- Hydrogen Spectrum
- Radioactivity
Friction in Solids and Liquids
Semiconductor Devices
- Basics of Semiconductor Devices
- p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier
- Half Wave Rectifier
- Full Wave Rectifier
- Ripple Factor
- Filter circuits
- Special Purpose P-n Junction Diodes
- Applications of semiconductors : Rectifier diode, LED, Zener diode, Photo diode, Photovoltaic cell, BJT, FET, SCR., MOSFET
- Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
- Basics of Logic Gates
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
- Flow of Charges (Electrons) Between Conductor
- Drift Speed
- Limitations of Ohm’s Law
- Forms of Energy > Electrical Energy
- Concept of Power
- Resistors
- Specific Resistance
- Variation of Resistance with Temperature
- Electro-Motive Force of a Cell
- Cells in Series
Magnetism
- Concept of Magnetism
- Magnetic Lines of Force
- The Bar Magnet
- Gauss' Law of Magnetism
- The Earth’s Magnetism
Estimated time: 2 minutes
CBSE: Class 12
Definition Error
The deviation of a measured value from the true value of a quantity arising due to human error, instrument limitations, or environmental conditions is called error.
Mathematically: Error = Measured value − True value
CBSE: Class 12
Definition: Instrumental Error
The error arising due to improper design or calibration, least count of the instrument, or zero error of the instrument is called instrumental error.
