Topics
Biomolecules
11th Std
Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants
- Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction in Plants
- Structure and Development of Anther
- Microsporogenesis
- Structure and Development of Male Gametophyte
- Structure and Development of Ovule
- Megasporogenesis
- Development of Female Gametophyte or Embryo Sac
- Pollination
- Outbreeding Devices
- Pollen Pistil Interaction
- Double Fertilization and Triple Fusion
- Endosperm
- Embryo
- Formation of Seed and Fruit
- Apomixis
- Parthenocarpy
- Polyembryony
Respiration and Energy Transfer
12th Std
Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals
- Asexual Reproduction in Animals > Gemmule Formation
- Sexual Reproduction
- The Male Reproductive System
- The Female Reproductive System
- Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
- Major Events of Menstrual Cycle
- Gametogenesis
- Spermatogenesis
- Oogenesis
- Fertilization in Human
- Embryonic Development in Human
- Pregnancy in Humans
- Placenta (Growth) in Human
- Parturition (Birth) in Human
- Lactation in Human
- Concept of Reproductive Health
- Birth Control
- Induced Abortion or Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
- Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) or Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
- Infertility
Human Nutrition
Inheritance and Variation
- Genes and Genetic
- Chromosomes and Mechanism of inheritance
- Genetic Terminology
- Reasons for Mendel's Success
- Monohybrid Cross
- Dihybrid Cross
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Dominance
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Segregation (Law of Purity of Gametes)
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Independent Assortment
- Back Cross and Test Cross
- Deviations from Mendel’s Findings
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Incomplete Dominance
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Co-Dominance
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Multiple alleles
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Pleiotropy
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
- Chromosomes - The Carriers of Heredity
- Types of Chromosomes
- Linkage and Crossing Over
- Autosomal Inheritance
- Sex Linked Inheritance
- Colour blindness
- Haemophilia
- Sex Determination
- Sex Determination in Honey Bees
- Human Genetic Disorders
- Thalassemia
- Chromosomal Disorders or Abnormalities
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- Griffith’s Experiment
- Avery, McCarty and MacLeod’s Experiment
- The Hershey-Chase Experiment
- Packaging of DNA Helix
- DNA Replication
- Semi-Conservative Replication
- Transcription
- Protein Synthesis
- Translation
- Genetic Code
- tRNA – the Adapter Molecule
- Characteristics of the Genetic Code
- Mutation and Genetic Code
- Regulation of Gene Expression
- Operon Concept
- The Lac Operon
- Genomics
- Human Genome Project
- DNA Fingerprinting
- Transcription Unit and the Gene
Excretion and Osmoregulation
- Excretion
- Modes of Excretion: Ammonotelism, Ureotelism, and Uricotelism
- Organisms and Their Excretory Structures
- Human Excretory System
- Kidney and Its Internal Structure
- Structure of a Kidney Tubule (Nephrons)
- Urine Formation
- Concentration of Urine
- Composition of Urine
- Role of other organs in excretion
- Common Disorders of the Urinary System
- Haemodialysis
- Peritoneal Dialysis
- Kidney Transplantation
Diversity in Organisms
- Concept of Living
- Taxonomical Aids
Origin and Evolution of Life
- Origin of Life on Earth
- Chemical Evolution of Life
- The RNA World
- Urey and Miller’s Experiment
- Organic Evolution
- Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)
- Basic Postulates of Darwinism
- Mutation Theory
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution > Genetic Variations
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution > Natural Selection
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution > Isolation
- Mechanism of Organic Evolution
- Hardy Weinberg’s Principle
- Adaptive Radiation
- Evidences of Organic Evolution
- Evidences of organic evolution > Palaeontology
- Evidences of organic evolution > Morphology
- Speciation
- Geological Time Scale
- Human Evolution
- Stages of Human Evolution
Plant-Water Relation
- Properties of Water
- Water Absorbing Organ
- Water Available to Roots for Absorption
- Imbibition
- Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Osmotic Pressure
- Water Potential (ψ)
- Turgidity and Flaccidity (Plasmolysis)
- Path of Water Across the Root
- Mechanism of Absorption of Water
- Translocation of Water
- Root Pressure Theory (Vital Theory)
- Capillarity Theory (physical force theory)
- Cohesion-Tension Theory (Transpiration pull theory)
- Transport of Mineral Ions
- Transportation of Food and Other Substances
- Concept of Transpiration
- Structure of Stomatal Apparatus
- Significance of Transpiration
Plant Water Relations and Mineral Nutrition
- Tissues - “The Teams of Workers”
- Plant Tissues
- Meristems or Meristematic Tissues
- Permanent Tissue
- Simple Permanent Tissues (Supporting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissues
- Complex Permanent Tissue: Xylem Structure and Function (Conducting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissue: Phloem Structure and Function (Conducting Tissue)
- Tissue System
- Secondary Growth in Plants
- Wood
- Cork Cambium and Secondary Growth
- Internal Structure of Dicot Root (Bean)
- Internal Structure of Monocot Root (Maize)
- Internal Structure of Dicot Stem (Sunflower)
- Internal Structure of Monocot Stem (Maize)
- Internal Structure of Dicot Leaf (Dorsiventral Leaf) Ex. Mango Leaf
- Internal Structure of Monocot Leaf (Isobilateral Leaf) Ex.Grass Leaf
Plant Growth and Mineral Nutrition
- Plant Growth
- Phases of Plant Growth
- Conditions for Plant Growth
- Plant Growth Rate
- Types of Plant Growth
- Plant Growth Curve
- Differentiation, De-differentiation, Re- Differentiation
- Plant Development
- Plant Plasticity
- Plant Hormones
- Auxins
- Gibberellins
- Cytokinins
- Ethylene
- Abscisic Acid (ABA)
- Photoperiodism
- Vernalization (Yarovization)
- Photoperiodism
- Plant Mineral Nutrition
- Roles of Mineral Elements in Plants
- Minerals Salt Absorption
- Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen Fixation
Plant Growth and Development
- Concept of Photosynthesis
- Plastids
- Chlorophyll: The Vital Plant Pigment
- Nature of Light
- Mechanism of Photosynthesis
- Process of Photosynthesis
- Light Reaction
- Photophosphorylation
- Light-Independent Phase of Photosynthesis
- Photorespiration
- C4 Pathway Or Hatch-slack Pathway
- Cam - Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
- Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Organization of Cell
- Types of Cells
- Components of Eukaryotic Cell
Respiration and Circulation
- Respiration
- Respiration in Animals
- Human Respiratory System
- Mechanism of Respiration > Breathing
- Mechanism of Respiration > External Respiration
- Mechanism of Respiration > Internal Respiration
- Cellular Respiration
- Regulation of Breathing / Respiration
- Modified Respiratory Movements
- Disorders of Respiratory System
- Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation (Double Circulation)
- Transportation in Living Organisms
- Circulation in Animals
- Circulatory System Or Blood Vascular System
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Coagulation of Blood
- Human Heart
- Working Mechanism of Human Heart
- Blood Vessels
- Blood Pressure (B.P.)
- Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- Lymph and Lymphatic System
Animal Tissues
Control and Co-ordination
- Need for Control and Coordination in Organisms
- Nervous System in Hydra
- Nervous System in Planaria (Flatworm)
- Neural Tissue
- Synapse
- Transmission and Generation of Nerve Impulse
- Human Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- The Human Brain
- Reflex Action
- Sensory Receptors
- Human Eye
- Structure of the Eyeball
- Human Ear
- Internal Ear and the Mechanism of Balance
- Disorders of Nervous System
- Chemical Coordination
- Human Endocrine System
- Mechanism of Hormone Action
- The Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis Gland
- The Pineal Gland
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Gland
- Thymus Gland
- Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal Gland)
- Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
- Reproductive Glands (Gonads)
- Diffuse Endocrine Glands
- Hormonal Disorders
Skeleton and Movement
- Disorders Related to Bones
Human Health and Diseases
- Immunity
- Types of Immunity > Innate Immunity
- Types of Immunity > Acquired Immunity
- Cells of Immune System
- Types of T-Lymphocyte:
- Mechanism of Action of B-lymphocytes to Antigens
- Vaccination and Immunization
- Structure of Antibody
- Formation of Antigen-Antibody Complex
- Blood Transfusion and Blood Groups (ABO and Rh system)
- Disease
- Diseases Caused by Bacteria > Typhoid
- Diseases Caused by Bacteria > Pneumonia
- Diseases Caused by Protozoa > Malaria
- Diseases Caused by Protozoa > Amoebiasis (Amoeboic dysentery)
- Diseases Caused by Helminths > Ascariasis
- Diseases Caused by Helminths > Filariasis (Elephantiasis)
- Diseases Caused by Viruses > Common Cold
- Diseases Caused by Viruses > Dengue Fever
- Diseases Caused by Fungi > Ringworm
- Cancer
- Types of Cancer
- Causes of Cancer
- Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
- Concept of Adolescence
- Addiction
- Drug Abuse
- Addiction and Dependence
Enhancement of Food Production
- Improvement in Food Production
- Plant Breeding
- Hybridization and its Technique
- Indian Hybrid Crops
- Mutation Breeding
- Tissue Culture
- Micropropagation (Clonal Propagation)
- Single Cell Protein (SCP)
- Biofortification
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock)
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Animal Breeding
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Dairy (Livestock) Farm Management
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Poultry Farm Management
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Apiculture (Bee Farming)
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Pisciculture (Fish Farming)
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Sericulture
- Animal Husbandry (Livestock) > Lac Culture
- Microbes in Human Welfare
- Microbes in Industrial Products
- Microbes in Sewage Treatment
- Microbes in Energy Generation
- Microbes as Biocontrol Agents
- Bioherbicide
- Microbes as Biofertilizers
- Types of Biofertilisers
Systematics of Living Organisms
- Salient Features of Five Kingdoms
- Kingdom Monera
Biotechnology
- Concept of Biotechnology
- Principles of Processes of Biotechnology
- Technique of Gene Cloning and rDNA Technology
- Methodology for rDNA Technology
- Applications of Biotechnology in Health and Medicine
- Applications of Biotechnology in Agriculture
- Gene Therapy
- Bioethics
- Effects of Biotechnology on the Environment
- Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health
- Biopatent
- Biopiracy
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
Organisms and Populations
Ecosystems and Energy Flow
Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Issues
- Biodiversity
- Levels of Biodiversity
- Patterns of Biodiversity
- Importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem
- Biodiversity Current Scenario
- Loss of Biodiversity
- Conservation of Biodiversity
- Biodiversity Conservation Methods
- Biological Diversity Act, 2002
- Environmental Issues
- Air Pollution
- Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
- Noise Pollution
- Water Pollution
- Prevention and Control of Water Pollution
- Solid Waste Management
- Green House Effect
- Global Warming
- Ozone Layer Depletion
- Deforestation and Its Causes
- Mission Harit Maharashtra
Estimated time: 3 minutes
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Urine Formation
- Urine formation occurs in three main steps: ultrafiltration, selective reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
- Ultrafiltration takes place in the glomerulus due to high pressure, filtering blood plasma without proteins and cells to form glomerular filtrate.
- The filtrate contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, and salts, and passes into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
- Selective reabsorption occurs mainly in PCT, where useful substances like glucose, amino acids, ions, and most water (about 99%) are reabsorbed.
- Tubular secretion occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and the collecting duct, where wastes like H⁺, K⁺, and creatinine are added to the filtrate.
- These processes help in maintaining water balance, electrolyte balance, and pH of the body while forming urine.
