Topics
Class 11
Units and Measurement
- Physical Quantities
- System of Units
- The International System of Units (SI)
- Significant Figures
- Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
- Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
- Rules for Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic Calculations
- Dimensions of Physical Quantities
- Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations
- Dimensional Analysis and Its Applications
- Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations
- Deducing Relation among the Physical Quantities
- Accuracy, Precision and Least Count of Measuring Instruments
- Errors in Measurement
- Errors in Measurements>Random Errors
- Errors in Measurements>Systematic Errors
- Estimation of Errors
Class 12
Motion in a Straight Line
Concept of Vector and Motion in a Plane
- Motion in Two Dimensions - Motion in a Plane
- Scalars and Vectors
- Position and Displacement Vectors
- Equality of Vectors
- Multiplication of Vectors by a Real Number or Scalar
- Vector Operations>Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
- Resolution of Vectors
- Vector Addition – Analytical Method
- Motion in a Plane
- Equations of Motion in a Plane with Constant Acceleration
- Projectile Motion
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)
- Vector
- Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions
- Scalar Product(Dot Product)
- Vector Product (Cross Product)
Laws of Motion and Friction
- Concept of Force
- Aristotle’s Fallacy
- The Law of Inertia
- Newton's First Law of Motion
- Newton’s Second Law of Motion
- Impulse of a Force
- Newton's Third Law of Motion
- Conservation of Momentum
- Equilibrium of a Particle
- Common Forces in Mechanics
- Friction
- Types of Friction>Rolling Friction
- Circular Motion and Its Characteristics
- Solving Problems in Mechanics
- Types of Friction>Kinetic Friction
- Types of Friction>Static Friction
- Frame of Reference
- Centripetal Force
- Types of Forces>Real and Pseudo Forces
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)
Mechanical Energy Dynamics, Power, and Collisions
- Introduction of Work, Energy and Power
- Scalar Product(Dot Product)
- Notions of Work and Kinetic Energy: the Work-energy Theorem
- Mechanical Energy > Kinetic Energy (K)
- Concept of Work
- Types of Forces>Work Done by a Variable Force
- Work Energy Theorem
- Mechanical Energy > Potential Energy (U)
- Conservation of Mechanical Energy
- Potential Energy of a Spring
- Concept of Power
- Collisions
- Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
- Collisions in One Dimension
- Collision in Two Dimensions
- Types of Forces>Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
- Motion in a Vertical Circle
- States of Equilibrium
Rotational Motion
- Motion - Rigid Body
- Centre of Mass>Mathematical Understanding of Centre of Mass
- Motion of Centre of Mass
- Linear Momentum of a System of Particles
- Vector Product of two vectors in Algebra (Cross Product)
- Angular Velocity and Its Relation with Linear Velocity
- Torque, Kinetic Energy, Angular Momentum and Its Conservation
- Conservation of Angular Momentum
- Equilibrium of Rigid Body
- Principle of Moments
- Centre of Gravity
- Moment of Inertia
- Kinematics of Rotational Motion About a Fixed Axis
- Dynamics of Rotational Motion About a Fixed Axis
- Angular Momentum in Case of Rotation About a Fixed Axis
- Centre of Mass of Two-particle System
- Centre of Mass of Some Regular Shaped Bodies
- Rigid Body Rotation
- Equations of Rotational Motion
- Comparison of Linear and Rotational Motions
- Rolling Motion
- Theorems of Perpendicular and Parallel Axes
- Radius of Gyration
- Values of Moments of Inertia for Geometrical Objects
Gravitational Phenomena: Laws, Effects and Applications
- Concept of Gravitation
- Kepler’s Laws
- Law of Orbit or Kepler's First Law
- Law of Areas or Kepler's Second Law
- Law of Periods or Kepler's Third Law
- Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation
- The Gravitational Constant
- Acceleration Due to Gravity of the Earth
- Acceleration Due to Gravity Below and Above the Earth's Surface
- Gravitational Potential Energy
- Escape Speed
- Earth Satellites
- Binding Energy of an Orbiting Satellite
- Escape Velocity
- Geostationary and Polar Satellites
- Time Period of Satellite
- Weightlessness
Mechanical Properties of Solids
- Elastic Behavior of Solids
- Stress and Strain
- Hooke’s Law
- Stress-strain Curve
- Elastic Modulus>Young’s Modulus
- Elastic Modulus>Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity)
- Elastic Modulus>Bulk Modulus
- Elastic Modulus>Poisson’s Ratio
- Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire
- Application of Elastic Behaviour of Materials
- Elastic Energy
Mechanical Properties of Fluids
- Introduction of Mechanical Properties of Fluids
- Thrust and Pressure
- Pascal’s Law
- Variation of Pressure with Depth
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Hydraulic Machines
- Streamline and Turbulent Flow
- Bernoulli's Equation
- Torricelli's Law
- Dynamic Lift
- Viscous Force or Viscosity
- Stoke's Law
- Surface Tension
- Surface Energy
- Surface Tension and Surface Energy
- Angle of Contact
- Drops and Bubbles
- Capillary Rise
- Pressure Exerted by a Liquid Column
- Application of Pascal’s Law
- Buoyancy Force (Upthrust Force)
- Archimedes' Principle
- Principle of Floatation (Laws of Flotation)
- Terminal Velocity
- Critical Velocity
- Reynold's Number
- Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Thermal Properties of Matter
- Thermal Properties of Matter
- Temperature and Heat
- Measurement of Temperature
- Ideal Gas Equation
- Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature
- Thermal Expansion
- Expansion of Liquids
- Expansion of Solids
- Expansion of Gases
- Specific Heat Capacity
- Calorimetry
- Change of State
- Latent Heat
- Heat Transfer
- Conduction
- Convection
- Radiation
- Blackbody Radiation
- Newton’s Law of Cooling
- Thermal Conductivity
Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamics
- Thermal Equilibrium
- Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- Heat, Internal Energy and Work
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Specific Heat Capacity
- Thermodynamic State Variables and Equation of State
- Thermodynamic Process
- Quasi-static process
- Isothermal Processes
- Adiabatic Processes
- Isochoric process
- Isobaric process
- Cyclic Process
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Reversible and Irreversible Processes
- Carnot Engine
Kinetic Theory of Gases
- Introduction of Kinetic Theory of Gases
- Mean Free Path
- Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour
- Kinetic Theory of Gases - Concept of Pressure
- Pressure of an Ideal Gas
- Interpretation of Temperature in Kinetic Theory
- Law of Equipartition of Energy
- Specific Heat Capacities - Gases
- Specific Heat Capacity of Solids and Liquids
- Equation of State of a Perfect Gas
- Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases
- Degrees of Freedom
- Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
- Gay-Lussac's Law
- Avogadro's Law
Oscillations
- Periodic and Oscillatory Motion
- Period and Frequency
- Displacement
- Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)
- Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion
- Velocity and Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion
- Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion
- Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
- Simple Pendulum
- Oscillations Due to a Spring
- Forced Oscillations and Resonance
- Damped Simple Harmonic Motion
- Some Systems Executing Simple Harmonic Motion
Wave
- Introduction of Wave Mechanics
- Wave Motion
- Reflection of Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
- Displacement Relation for a Progressive Wave
- The Speed of a Travelling Wave
- Principle of Superposition of Waves
- Reflection of Waves
- Standing Waves and Normal Modes
- Beats
- Doppler Effect
- Laplace’s Correction
- Standing Waves on String and Organ Pipes
Electric Charges and Fields
- Concept of Electrostatics
- Electric Charge
- Basic Properties of Electric Charge
- Coulomb’s Law
- Principle of Superposition
- Force between Charges
- Electric Field
- Electric Lines of Force
- Electric Flux
- Electric Dipole
- Dipole in a Uniform External Field
- Continuous Charge Distribution
- Gauss’s Law
- Application of Gauss' Law
- Conservation of Charge
Motion in One Dimension
- Introduction of Motion in One Dimension
- Elementary Concept of Differentiation and Integration for Describing Motion
- Motion in a Straight Line
- Average Speed
- Average Velocity
- Instantaneous Speed
- Instantaneous Velocity
- Acceleration in Linear Motion
- Uniform and Non-uniform Motion
- Uniformly Accelerated Motion
- Position - Time Graph
- Velocity - Time Graphs
- Relative Velocity
Motion in Two Dimension
- Motion in a Plane
- Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions
- Projectile Motion
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)
- Motion in a Vertical Circle
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
- Electric Potential and Potential Difference
- Electrostatic Potential
- Potential Due to a Point Charge
- Potential Due to an Electric Dipole
- Conductors and Insulators
- Equipotential Surfaces
- Potential Energy of a System of Charges
- Potential Energy in an External Field
- Electrostatics of Conductors
- Dielectrics
- Electric Polarisation of Matter
- Capacitors and Capacitance
- The Parallel Plate Capacitor
- Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance
- Combination of Capacitors
- Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
Mechanical Properties of Fluids: Surface Tension
- Intermolecular Force of Attraction
- Surface Tension
- Surface Energy
- Surface Tension and Surface Energy
- Angle of Contact
- Drops and Bubbles
- Capillarity and Capillary Action
Principles of Electrical Circuits and their Applications
- Electric Current and Its Related Concepts
- Ohm's Law
- Ohmic and Non-ohmic Resistors
- Forms of Energy > Electrical Energy
- Electrical Power
- Specific Resistance or Electrical Resistivity
- Conductivity and Conductance
- Current Density
- Resistance
- Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
- Resistors in Series
- Resistors in Parallel
- Cells, EMF, and Internal Resistance
- Electromotive Force (emf)
- Cells in Series
- Cells in Parallel
- Kirchhoff’s Laws
- Wheatstone Bridge
- Metre Bridge: Slide-Wire Bridge
Magnetic Effect of Current
- Biot-Savart Law
- Applications of Biot-Savart's Law > Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current-Carrying Loop
- Applications of Biot-Savart's Law > Magnetic Field due to a Finite Straight Current-Carrying Wire
- Ampere’s Circuital Law
- Applications of Ampere’s Circuital Law > Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Thin Wire
- Applications of Ampere’s Circuital Law >Magnetic Field due to Infinite Long Solid Cylindrical Conductor
- Applications of Ampere’s Circuital Law > Magnetic Field of a Toroidal Solenoid
- Force on a Moving Charge in a Uniform Magnetic Field
- Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
- Force Between Two Parallel Currents (Ampere’s Law)
- Torque on a Rectangular Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field
- Moving Coil Galvanometer
- Conversion of a Galvanometer into an Ammeter
- Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter
Magnetism and Magnetic Matter
- Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
- Magnetic Dipole Moment
- Magnetic Field Due to Magnetic Dipole (Bar Magnet)
- Torque on a Magnetic Dipole (Bar Magnet) in a Uniform Magnetic Field
- Bar Magnet and Solenoid Analogy
- Magnetic Field Lines
- Magnetic Field Due to Solenoid & Toroid
- Magnetic Properties of Materials
- Terms Used in Magnetism
- Curie Temperature
Electromagnetic Induction
Alternating Current
Displacement current and Electromagnetic Waves
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
- Fundamental Concepts of Light
- Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors
- Image Formation by Concave Mirror
- Image Formation by a Convex Mirror
- Sign Convention
- Focal Length of Spherical Mirrors
- Ray Optics - Mirror Formula
- Refraction of Light
- Total Internal Reflection
- Refraction at a Spherical Surface and Lenses
- Refraction at a Spherical Surfaces
- Refraction by a Lens
- Thin Lenses and Their Combination
- Refraction of Light Through a Prism
- Optical Instruments
- Microscope and it’s types
- Telescope
- Law of Reflection of Light
- Laws of Refraction
- Lens Formula
- Power of a Lens
Wave Optics
Diffraction and Polarisation of Light
Photo Electric Effect and Matter Waves
- Dual Nature of Radiation
- Electric Discharge Through Gases
- Electron Emission
- Photoelectric Effect - Hertz’s Observations
- Photoelectric Effect - Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s Observations
- Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
- Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
- Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation
- Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
- Wave Nature of Matter
- De Broglie's Explanation
Communication System
- Communication System
- Propagation of EM Waves
- Basic Terminology Used in Electronic Communication Systems
- Modulation and Its Necessity
- Carrier Waves and Their Types
- Amplitude Modulation (AM)
- Frequency Modulation (FM)
- Bandwidth of Signals
- Bandwidth of Transmission Medium
Atoms
Nuclei
Electronic Devices
- Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors
- Semiconductor Materials
- Energy Bands in Solids
- Holes
- Intrinsic Semiconductor
- Extrinsic Semiconductor
- p-type Semiconductor
- n-type Semiconductor
- Semiconductor Diode
- Diode or p-n Junction
- Forward Bias
- Reverse Bias
- V-I Characteristics of Diode
- p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier
- Half Wave Rectifier
- Full Wave Rectifier
- Special Purpose P-n Junction Diodes
- LED
- Photodiode
- Solar Cell
- Zener Diode
- Voltage Regulator
- Logic Gates
Experimental Skills
- Vernier Callipers
- Screw Gauge
- Simple Pendulum
- Metre Scale
- Young's Modulus of Elasticity
- Surface Tension of Water
- Coefficient of viscosity
- Experimental Determination of Speed of Sound in Air
- Specific Heat Capacity
- Resistivity Measurement
- Resistance Measurement
- Focal Length Measurement Using the Parallax Method
- Plot of Angle of Deviation Vs Angle of Incidence for a Triangular Prism
- Fractive Index of a Glass Slab Using a Travelling Microscopе
- Characteristic Curves of a p-n Junction Diode
- Identification of Diode, Led, Resistor, and Capacitor
Estimated time: 4 minutes
CBSE: Class 12
Definition: Valence Band
The continuous energy band formed by the merging of energy bands of each atom, known as the valence band.
CBSE: Class 12
Key Points: Holes
- In Bohr's model, electrons occupy sharp and distinct energy levels, but with many atoms interacting, these levels spread out and broaden into energy bands.
- In a silicon crystal, there are 10²³ atoms per cubic centimetre, so individual energy levels form broad energy ranges.
- Energy band diagrams of semiconductors plot energy as a function of wave number vˉvˉ along crystallographic directions, as the band diagram depends on direction in the crystal.
- Energy band diagrams contain many completely-filled and empty bands along with multiple partially-filled bands.
- When a hole moves, it is actually electrons moving in the opposite direction — the hole appears to move to the right as the electron moves to the left.
