Physics HSC Science (General) 12th Standard Board Exam Maharashtra State Board Syllabus 2026-27

• Introduction

• Kinematics of Circular Motion
• Dynamics of Circular Motion (Centripetal Force and Centrifugal Force)

1. Centripetal force (CPF)
2. Centrifugal force (c.f.f.)

• Vehicle Along a Horizontal Circular Track
• Well (or Wall) of Death
• Vehicle on a Banked Road

1. Most safe speed
2. Banking angle
3. Speed limits

• Conical Pendulum

• Point Mass Undergoing Vertical Circular Motion Under Gravity

1. Case I: Mass tied to a string
2. Case II: Mass tied to a rod

• Sphere of Death
• Vehicle at the Top of a Convex OverBridge

• Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Ring
• Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Disc

• Theorem of Perpendicular Axes
• Theorem of Parallel Axes
• Application of perpendicular and parallel axes theorem on different regular bodies

• Expression for Angular Momentum in Terms of Moment of Inertia

• Ballet dancers
• Diving in a swimming pool (during competition)

• Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion
• Rolling motion on an inclined plane

• Relation Between Linear Velocity and Angular Velocity

• Definition: Uniform Circular Motion

• Definition: Centrifugal Force
• Definition: Fictitious Force
• Key Points: Centrifugal Force

• Introduction
• History/Origin
• Formula: Kepler's Law
• Characteristics
• Significance
• Real-Life Examples
• Drawing an Ellipse

• Weightlessness Condition in Orbit

• Introduction
• Unit of pressure
• Experiment

• Introduction
• Experiment 1
• Experiment 2

• Applications of Pascal's law

1. Hydraulic press
2. Hydraulic lift
3. Hydraulic brakes

• Surface Tension
• Force due to surface tension
• Factors affecting surface tension
  1) Nature of liquid
  2) Impurities
  3) Temperature
  4) Electrification
• Applications of surface tension

1. Intermolecular force
2. Range of molecular force
3. Sphere of influence
4. Surface film
5. Free surface of a liquid
6. Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory

• Surface Tension
• Surface Energy
• Relation between the surface energy and surface tension

• Angle of contact
• Characteristics of angle of contact
• Factors affecting angle of contact (θ)
  i) Nature of solid and liquid in contact
  ii) Impurities
  iii) Inclination
  iv) Temperature
• Shape of liquid meniscus
• Shape of liquid drop

1. Effect of impurities
2. Effect of temperature

1. Plane liquid surface
2. Convex liquid surface
3. Concave liquid surface

• Capillary action
• Ascent formula
• Capillary fall
• Capillary rise

• Expression for capillary rise or fall

• Method (I): Using pressure difference
• Method (II): Using forces

• Viscosity
• Newton's law of viscosity
• Coefficient of viscosity
• Applications of coefficient of viscosity

• Applications of Bernoulli's theorem

1. Action of atomiser
2. Blowing of roofs by wind storms
3. Venturimeter
4. Blood Flow and Heart Attack
5. Dynamic Lift
   (a) Ball moving without spin
   (b) Ball moving with spin
   (c) Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing

• Gases
• Behaviour and characteristic properties of gases

1. Composition of gases
2. Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape
3. Gases exert pressure in all directions
4. Gases are highly compressible
5. Gases are highly expansible
6. Gases have low density
7. Gases have a natural tendency to mix with one another (diffusion)
8. Gases can be liquefied

• Free path

• Mean free path

• The pressure exerted by the molecules depends on:
  (i) Number density
  (ii) Mass of the molecule
  (iii) Mean square speed

• Impact of v_rms in nature:
  1. Moon has no atmosphere
  2. No hydrogen in Earth’s atmosphere

• Kinetic energy of gas
• Different forms of K.E. of gas
• Relation between K.E. and temperature of the gas

• Law of equipartition of energy
• Energy of a system of the degree of freedom (f)

• Definition: Specific Heat Capacity
• Formula: Specific Heat Capacity
• Key Points: Specific Heat Capacity

• Interaction of Thermal Radiation and Matter

• Ferry’s Blackbody

• Coefficient of Emission or Emissivity

• Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion
• Rolling motion on an inclined plane

• Moment of a Force (Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body)
• Angular Momentum and Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum and Its Applications
• Moment of force (Torque)
• Angular momentum of a particle
• Torque and angular momentum for a system of particles
• conservation of angular momentum

• Theorem of Perpendicular Axes
• Theorem of Parallel Axes
• Application of perpendicular and parallel axes theorem on different regular bodies

• Heat
• Internal Energy
• Work: P-V diagrams

• Thermodynamic Equilibrium
  1) Mechanical equilibrium
  2) Chemical equilibrium
  3) Thermal equilibrium
• Equation of state
• Thermodynamic state variables
  1) Extensive variables
  2) Intensive variables

• Thermodynamic Process
• Work Done During a Thermodynamic Process
• Heat Added During a Thermodynamic Process

• Heat engine

• Source
• Working substance
• Sink
• Working

• Efficiency of heat engine

• Refrigerator: Heat Flow from a Colder Region to a Hotter Region

• Source
• Working substance
• Sink
• Working

• Performance of a Refrigerator
• Air conditioner
• Heat Pump

• Clausius' Statement
• Kelvin Planck's Statement
• Entropy

• Significance of Reversibility in Thermodynamics
• Maximum Efficiency of a Heat Engine and Carnot’s Cycle
• Carnot Refrigerator
• The Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Carnot Cycle

• Periodic Motion
• Oscillatory motion
• Some important terms in periodic motion
• Displacement as a function of time
• Periodic functions
• Fourier theorem
• Period and frequency
• Displacement
• Time Period

• Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)
• Equation of S.H.M
  1) Equation of displacement
• Phase: Initial phase or epoch or phase constant, Phase angle
• S.H.M. as a projection of UCM
  2) Equation of velocity
  3) Equation of acceleration
  4) Equation of time period
  5) Equation of frequency

• Simple pendulum
• Effect of the density of medium on time period of simple pendulum
• Oscillations due to a Spring - Restoring Force and Force Constant
• Effect of viscosity of medium
• Effect of temperature
• Some special cases of simple pendulum: Second's pendulum
• Various types of S.H.M: 
  1) S.H.M of a liquid in U- shaped tube
  2) S.H.M of a floating cylinder
  3) S.H.M of a small ball rolling down in hemispherical bowl

• Elastic energy
• Work done in stretching a wire

• Expressions of displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a) at time t
• Extreme values of displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration (a)

1. Displacement
2. Velocity
3. Acceleration

• Amplitude of S.H.M.
• Period of S.H.M.
• Frequency of S.H.M.

• Graphical Representation of S.H.M.

1. Particle executing S.H.M., starting from mean position, towards positive
2. Particle performing S.H.M., starting from the positive extreme position

• Conclusions from graph

• Magnet Vibrating in Uniform Magnetic Field

• Periodic Motion
• Oscillatory motion
• Some important terms in periodic motion
• Displacement as a function of time
• Periodic functions
• Fourier theorem
• Period and frequency
• Displacement
• Time Period

• Superposition of Two Wave Pulses of Equal Amplitude and Same Phase Moving towards Each Other
• Superposition of Two Wave Pulses of Equal Amplitude and Opposite Phases Moving towards Each Other
• Amplitude of the Resultant Wave Produced due to Superposition of Two Waves

• Properties of progressive waves

• Formation of Stationary Waves
• Equation of Stationary Wave on a Stretched String

1. Condition for node
2. Condition for antinode

• Properties of Stationary Waves
• Comparison of Progressive Waves and Stationary Waves

• End Correction
• Vibrations of air column in a pipe closed at one end
• Vibrations of air column in a pipe open at both ends
• Practical Determination of End Connection
• Vibrations Produced in a String
• Laws of a Vibrating String

1. Law of length
2. Law of tension
3. Law of linear density

1. Verification of first law of a vibrating string
2. Verification of second law of a vibrating string
3. Verification of third law of a vibrating string

• Analytical method to determine beat frequency
• Applications of beats

1. Stringed instruments
2. Wind instruments
3. Percussion instruments

• Speed of a Transverse Wave on Stretched String
• Speed of a Longitudinal Wave Speed of Sound

• Terms involved in wave motion
• Velocity of transverse wave on string
• Velocity of longitudinal wave (Sound wave)
• Factors affecting velocity of sound in gaseous medium
  1) Effect of pressure at constant temperature
  2) Effect of temperature
  3) Effect of density
  4) Effect of humidity

1. Intermolecular force
2. Range of molecular force
3. Sphere of influence
4. Surface film
5. Free surface of a liquid
6. Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory

• Surface Tension
• Force due to surface tension
• Factors affecting surface tension
  1) Nature of liquid
  2) Impurities
  3) Temperature
  4) Electrification
• Applications of surface tension

• Capillary action
• Ascent formula
• Capillary fall
• Capillary rise

• Expression for capillary rise or fall

• Method (I): Using pressure difference
• Method (II): Using forces

1. Effect of impurities
2. Effect of temperature

• transverse wave
• capillary waves and gravity waves

• Beats
• Conditions for beat formation
• Theory of beats
• Applications of beats
  i) To determine the frequency of tuning fork
  ii) To tune musical instruments
  iii) To detect harmful gases in a mine

• Analytical method to determine beat frequency
• Applications of beats

• Wave Optics
• Newton's Corpuscular Theory of light
• Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory
• Huygens' Wave Theory of light
• Merits of Huygens' Wave Theory
• Limitations of Huygens' wave theory
• Properties of Luminiferous Ether

• Dual Nature of Light
• Speed of Light
• Categories of Light

• Primary and Secondary Sources of Light
• Wavefront
• Huygens’ Principle

• Dependence of Wavelength on the Refractive Index of the Medium

• Polarization by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
• Polarization by Scattering

• Diffraction of light
• Examples of diffraction of light

• Rayleigh’s Criterion for Limit of Resolution (or for Resolving Power)
• Resolving Power of a Microscope
• Resolving Power of a Telescope

• Introduction

• Electric Field Intensity due to Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell or Hollow Sphere
• Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long Straight Charged Wire
• Electric Field due to a Charged Infinite Plane Sheet

• Introduction
• Definition: Potential Difference
• Formula: Potential Difference
• Example

1. Electric potential due to a point charge
2. Electric potential due to an electric dipole
3. Electrostatics potential due to a system of charges

• Definition
• Properties

• Potential energy of a system of 2 point charges
• Potential energy for a system of N point charges
• Potential energy of a single charge in an external field
• Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field
• Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

1. Conductors and Insulators
2. Free charges and Bound charges inside materials

• Definition: Dielectrics
• Dielectric Constant
• Polar and Non-polar Dielectric Molecules

• In Series
• In Parallel

• Introduction
• Energy Stored in a Combination of Capacitors
• Energy Density in a Capacitor
• Force between the Plates of a Charged Parallel-Plate Capacitor
• Charges Induced on the Surfaces of a Dielectric Slab Placed between the
  Plates of Parallel-Plate Capacitor

• Principle

• Free, Forced and Damped Oscillations
• resonance
• Small Damping, Driving Frequency far from Natural Frequency
• Driving Frequency Close to Natural Frequency

• Kirchhoff’s First Law: (Current law/Junction law)
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• Introduction
• Definition: Wheatstone’s Bridge
• Derivation

• Principle
• Sensitivity of Potentiometer
• Construction
• Precautions
• Superiority of Potentiometer over Voltmeter

• Definition: Galvanometer

• Description
• Suspended-coil Galvanometer
• Radial Field
• Working
• Pivoted-coil (or Weston) Galvanometer

• Assumptions of kinetic theory of gases

1. Based on Nature of gas molecules
2. Based on motion of gas molecules

• Free path

• Mean free path

• Degrees of freedom

• Degrees of freedom of mono, di, and triatomic gases
  1) Monoatomic gas
  2) Diatomic gas
  3) Triatomic gas
  4) Polyatomic gas
• Degrees of freedom for different gases at room temperature

statement, mathematical form, simple calculations

• Heat engine

• Source
• Working substance
• Sink
• Working

• Efficiency of heat engine

• Introduction
• Experiment
• Thermal Equilibrium
• Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium
• States of Matter and Energy Transformation 
• Definition: Temperature
• Heat Transfer and Units of Energy and Temperature 

• Perfectly black body 
• Ferry's black body
• Spectrum of black body radiation in terms of wavelength

• Stefan's (Stefan - Boltzmann) law

• Applications of the law of equipartition of energy for specific heat capacity
• Monatomic Gases
• Diatomic Gases
• Triatomic Gases
• Specific Heat Capacity of Solids
• Specific Heat Capacity of Water

• Law of equipartition of energy
• Energy of a system of the degree of freedom (f)

• Wavefront
• Wave normal
• Wave surface
• Huygens' Principle
• Spherical Wavefront
• Plane Wavefront
• Cylindrical wavefront

• Method of producing polarised light

1. Polarisation by reflection
2. By Dichroism
3. By double refraction
4. Nicol prism
5. By scattering

• Uses of plane polarised light and Polaroids

• Analytical method to determine beat frequency
• Applications of beats

• Introduction
• Experiment

• Description
• Construction
• Theory and Working
• Achievement of Resonance Condition
• Limitations
• Kinetic Energy of Particles Accelerated in a Cyclotron

1. Straight wire
2. Arbitrarily shaped wire

• Introduction
• Derivation
• Biot-Savart's Law in Terms of Current Density
• Units and Dimensions

• Magnetic field due to a long straight solenoid
• Magnetic field due to a toroidal solenoid

• Interference of light
• Condition for constructive interference
• Condition for destructive interference
• Interference fringe
• Interference due to thin film
• Interference in thin parallel plate film
• Interference in thin parallel plate film due to reflected light
• Interference in thin parallel plate film due to transmitted light
• Interference in thin wedge-shaped film
• Colours in thin film

• Young's Double Slit Experiment and Expression for Fringe Width or Young’s Experiment
• Young's double-slit experiment: set up, diagram, geometrical deduction of path difference ∆x = dsinθ, between waves from the two slits
• Using ∆x = nλ for bright fringe and ∆x = (n + ½)λ for dark fringe and sin θ = tan θ = yn/D as y and θ are small, obtain yn = (D/d)nλ and fringe width β = (D/d)λ.
• Graph of distribution of intensity with angular distance.

• Single slit Fraunhofer diffraction (elementary explanation only)
• Formulae based comparison between secondary maxima and minima
• Diffraction at a single slit: experimental setup, diagram, diffraction pattern, obtain an expression for the position of minima, a sinθn = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3 … and conditions for secondary maxima, asinθn = (n + ½)λ.
• Distribution of intensity with angular distance
• Diffraction at plane grating
• Diffraction due to circular aperture
• Comparison between interference and diffraction
• Fresnel distance

• Selection of Magnetic Materials

• Location of Magnetic poles of a Current Carrying Loop

• Magnetic Moment of an Electron Revolving Around the Nucleus of an Atom

• Magnetisation
• Magnetic Intensity
• Relation between permeability and susceptibility

• Classification of Magnetic Materials:

1. Diamagnetic
2. Paramagnetic
3. Ferromagnetic
4. Ferrimagnetic
5. Antiferromagnetic
6. Piezoelectricity
7. Pyroelectricity

• Hysteresis Curve
• Hysteresis Loss
• Hysteresis Loop

• Definition: Electromagnetic Induction

• Definition: Faraday's Law of Induction
• Law: Faraday's First Law or Neumann's Law
• Law: Faraday's Second Law or Lenz's Law

• Applications of Lenz's law

1. Motion of a Magnet Toward a Loop
2. Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law
3. Lenz's Law and Faraday's Law

1. Translational motion of a conductor
2. Motional emf in a rotating bar

• Explanation
• Applications

• Introduction
• Principle
• Construction
• Theory
• Energy Losses in a Transformer
• Utility of Transformers in Long-distance Power Transmission
• Types of Transformer
• Examples
• Uses of Transformers
• Table

• Electric Field due to a Point Charge
• Electric field due to an Infinite Line of Charge 
• Electric Field due to an Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge
• Electric Field due to Two Infinite Parallel Sheets of Charge
• Electric Field Intensity Just Outside a Charged Conductor
• Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Thin Spherical Shell
• Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere (Optional)

• Definition: Dielectrics
• Dielectric Constant
• Polar and Non-polar Dielectric Molecules

• Kirchhoff's First Law or Junction Rule
• Kirchhoff's Second Law or Loop Rule

• Introduction
• Definition: Wheatstone’s Bridge
• Derivation

• Description
• Determination of Resistance
• Errors and Their Removal

• Principle
• Sensitivity of Potentiometer
• Construction
• Precautions
• Superiority of Potentiometer over Voltmeter

1. Average or mean value of AC
2. Root-mean-square (or rms) value

• Graph of e and i versus ωt
• Phasor diagram for a purely resistive load

• Graph of e and i versus ωt
• Phasor diagram for purely inductive circuit
• Inductive Reactance (X_L)

• Graph of e and i versus ωt
• Phasor diagram for the purely capacitive circuit
• Capacitive Reactance
• Comparison between resistance and reactance

• LCR Series Circuit
• Phasor-diagram solution
• Analytical solution
• Resonance  - Sharpness of resonance

• Circuit Containing Pure Resistance Only
• Circuit Containing both Inductance and Resistance (L-R Circuit)

1. Series resonance circuit
2. Parallel resonance circuit

• Experimental Set-up of Photoelectric Effect
• Observations from Experiments on Photoelectric Effect
• Failure of Wave Theory to Explain the Observations from Experiments on Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein’s Postulate of Quantization of Energy and the Photoelectric Equation
• Dual behaviour of electromagnetic spectrum

• Description
• Suspended-coil Galvanometer
• Radial Field
• Working
• Pivoted-coil (or Weston) Galvanometer

• Description
• Construction
• Theory and Working
• Achievement of Resonance Condition
• Limitations
• Kinetic Energy of Particles Accelerated in a Cyclotron

• Origin
• Structure of an Atom
• Structure of Nucleus
• Atomic Number
• Mass Number

• Introduction
• Rutherford’s Nuclear atomic model
• Merits and Demerits

• Wave particle duality of electromagnetic radiation
• Line emission spectrum of hydrogen
• Radii of the Orbits
• Energy of the Electrons
• Limitations of Bohr’s Model
• De Broglie’s Explanation

• Constituents of a Nucleus
• Units for measuring masses of atoms and subatomic particles
• Sizes of Nuclei
• Nuclear Forces

• Definition: Isotopes
• Examples

• Meaning of binding energy curve
• `bar(BE) = ([Zm_H + Nm_n - M_a]c^2)/A`
• Important inferences from of the average binding energy curve

• Definition: Nuclear Energy

• Alpha Decay
• Beta Decay
• Gamma Decay
• Rate of decay
• Rate law
• Expression for decay constant
• Half life of radioelement (t_1/2)
• Graphical representation of decay
• Units of radioactivity

• Magnetisation
• Magnetic Intensity
• Relation between permeability and susceptibility

• Introduction
• Comparison between N-Type Semiconductor and P- Type Semiconductor
• Advantages
• Disadvantages

• Half Wave Rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier
• Ripple Factor
• Filter circuits
• A capacitor filter

• Zener Diode

• Emitter
• Base
• Collector
• Depletion region
• Current
• Resistance
• Working of a p-n-p transistor
• Transistor configuration

1. The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
2. The Common Emitter (CE) characteristic
3. Transistor as an Amplifier

• Working of the amplifier

• Definition: Electromagnetic Induction

• Introduction
• Principle
• Construction
• Theory
• Energy Losses in a Transformer
• Utility of Transformers in Long-distance Power Transmission
• Types of Transformer
• Examples
• Uses of Transformers
• Table

• Principle
• Construction and Its Main Parts
• Working
• Frequency of Altering Current

• Series Resonant Circuit
• Characteristics of Series Resonant Circuit

• Circuit Containing Pure Resistance Only
• Circuit Containing both Inductance and Resistance (L-R Circuit)

• Lenz's Law

• Hertz and Lenard's Observations
• Hallwach and Lenard's Experiment

• Einstein's equation E_max = hυ - W₀; threshold frequency
• Einstein used Planck’s ideas and extended it to apply for radiation (light); the photoelectric effect can be explained only assuming the quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
• Determination of Planck’s constant (from the graph of stopping potential V_s versus frequency f of the incident light).
• Momentum of photon p = E/c = hν/c = h/λ.

• Alpha-particle Scattering Experiment and Rutherford's Model of Atom
• Alpha-particle trajectory
• Electron orbits
• Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom (mathematical theory of scattering excluded), based on Geiger - Marsden experiment on α-scattering; nuclear radius r in terms of closest approach of α particle to the nucleus,
  obtained by equating ∆K = ½ mv² of the α particle to the change in electrostatic potential energy ∆U of the system `"U" = (2e xx "Ze")/(4πε_0r_0) r_0 ∼ 10^(-15) "m" = 1` fermi; atomic structure; only general qualitative ideas, including atomic number Z, Neutron number N and mass number A.

• Explanation of the line spectrum of hydrogen using Bohr theory
• Bohr's theory and atomic spectrum of hydrogen
• Ionization energy

• Composition and Size of Nucleus

• Introduction
• Becquerel Rays
• Radioactivity is a Nuclear Phenomenon
• Discovery of Radioactivity
• Radioactive Substances
• Types of Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Substances

• Atomic Mass
• Mass-Energy Relation
• Mass Defect
• Packing fraction

• De Broglie hypothesis, phenomenon of electron diffraction (qualitative only).
• Wave nature of radiation is exhibited in interference, diffraction and polarisation; particle nature is exhibited in photoelectric effect.
• Dual nature of matter: particle nature common in that it possesses momentum p and kinetic energy KE. The
  wave nature of matter was proposed by Louis de Broglie, λ = h/p = h/mv.

• Matter waves
• De Broglie wave relation
• De Broglie wavelength of an electron
• Ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of photon and electron

• Energy bands in Solids
• Energy bands in solids are of three types

1. Valence band
2. Conduction band
3. Forbidden energy gap or Energy band gap

• Doping
• Classification

• Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes: Led, Photodiode, Solar Cell and Zener Diode
• characteristics of Led, Photodiode, Solar Cell and Zener Diode
• Zener diode
• Optoelectronic junction devices - Photodiode, Light emitting diode, Solar cell

• Semiconductor Diode
• Potential barrier at the junction diode
• Biasing of the p-n junction diode
  1) Forward biasing
  2) Reverse biasing
• V-I Characteristics of a p-n junction diode
  1) p-n junction diode under forward bias: Cut-off or knee voltage
  2) p-n junction diode under reverse bias: Breakdown voltage
  3) Reverse Breakdown: Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown
• Dynamic Resistance

• Zener diode
• I-V characteristics of Zener diode
• Zener diode as voltage regulator
• Line regulation in Zener diode
• Load regulation in Zener diode
• Ratings of a Zener diode

• Configurations of a transistor
  i) Common-base configuration (CB)
  ii) Common-emitter configuration (CE)
  iii) Common-collector configuration (CC)
• Types of characteristic curves
  i) Input characteristics curve
  ii) Output characteristics curve
  iii) Transfer characteristics curve
• Transistor characteristics in CE configuration
  a) Input Characteristics
  b) Output characteristics of a transistor: Active region, Cut-off region, Saturation region
• Different modes of operation of a transistor
• Current-transfer Characteristics
• Transistor as a switch

• Logic Gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR)
• Logic gates - NOT gate, OR Gate, AND Gate, NAND Gate, NOR Gate
• Basic Idea of Analog and Digital Signals

• Noise, Attenuation and Amplification
• Transducer, Signal, Noise, Transmitter, Receiver, Attenuation, Amplification, Range, Bandwidth, Modulation, Demodulation, Repeater

• Bandwidth of Signals (Speech, TV and Digital Data)

• Introduction
• Ionizing Radiations
• Applications of X-rays in Medicine and Industry

• Carrier waves and their types: Sinusoidal signal and Pulse shaped signal
• Modulation
• Types of Modulation - frequency and amplitude
• Base Band Signals
• Factors affecting transmission of electronic signal in the audio frequency range
• Size of the antenna or aerial: Hertz and Marconi antenna
• Effective power radiated by an antenna
• Mixing up of signals from different transmitters