Topics
The Living World
Class 11
Biological Classification
- Introduction of Biological Classification
- Systems of Classification
- Types of Classification
- General Features of Five Kingdoms
- Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms
- Merits and Demerits of the Five Kingdom Classification
- Kingdom Monera
- Archaebacteria
- Cyanobacteria
- Archaebacteria vs Eubacteria
- Heterotrophic bacteria vs Mycoplasma
- Kingdom Protista
- Kingdom Fungi
- Kingdom Plantae
- Kingdom Animalia
- Kingdom Plantae vs Kingdom Animalia
- Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens
Class 12
Plant Kingdom
- Introduction of Plant Kingdom
- Classification of Plant Kingdom
- Methods of Plant Kingdom Classification
- Sub-Kingdom Cryptogamae
- Cryptogams > Division I- Thallophyta
- Sub-division Algae
- Cryptogams > Division II- Bryophytes
- Cryptogams > Division III- Pteridophytes
- Sub-Kingdom Phanerogamae
- Division Spermatophyta
- Phanerogams > Division I-Gymnosperms
- Phanerogams > Division II- Angiosperms
- Difference between Monocot and Dicot
Animal Kingdom
- Kingdom Animalia
- Classification of Kingdom Animalia
- Classification of Animals
- Germ Layer Organisation
- Classification Based on Body Cavity
- Other Characteristic Features
- Phylum: Porifera
- Phylum: Cnidaria/Coelenterata
- Phylum: Ctenophora
- Phylum: Platyhelminthes
- Phylum: Aschelminthes
- Phylum: Annelida
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Phylum: Mollusca
- Phylum: Echinodermata
- Phylum: Hemichordata
- Phylum: Chordata
- Chordates vs Non-chordates
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Cyclostomata
- Subphylum -Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Chondrichthyes
- Subphylum -Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Osteichthyes
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Amphibia
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Reptilia
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Aves
- Subphylum: Vertebrata/Craniata > Class: Mammalia
Morphology of Flowering Plants
- Plant Morphology
- The Root
- The Stem
- The Leaf
- The Inflorescence
- Flower
- Flower Symmetry
- Types of Flowers
- The Fruit
- The Seed
- Structure of Dicotyledonous seed vs. Monocotyledonous seed
- Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed
- Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed
- Semi-technical Description of a Typical Flowering Plant
- Solanaceae
- Malvaceae
- Cruciferae (Brassicaceae)
- Leguminosae
- Compositae
- Graminae
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
- Tissues - “The Teams of Workers”
- Meristems or Meristematic Tissues
- Permanent Tissue
- Simple Permanent Tissues (Supporting Tissue)
- Complex Permanent Tissues
- Tissue System
- Epidermal Tissue System
- Ground Tissue System
- Vascular Tissue System
- Anatomy of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Plants
- Difference between Monocot and Dicot Plants
- Dicotyledonous root vs. Monocotyledonous root
- Dicotyledonous stem vs. Monocotyledonous stem
- Dicotyledonous Root
- Monocotyledonous Root
- Dicotyledonous Stem
- Monocotyledonous Stem
- Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf
- Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf
- Dicotyledonous Leaf vs. Monocotyledonous Leaf
Structural Organisation in Animals
Cell The Unit of Life
- Cell: Structural and Functional Unit of Life
- Cell Theory
- An Overview of Cell
- Prokaryotic Cells
- Cell Envelope and Its Modifications
- Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
- Structure of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
- Eukaryotic Cells
- Structure of the Cell > Plasma Membrane / Cell Membrane
- Fluid Mosaic Model
- Structure of the Cell > Cell Wall: “Supporter and Protector”
- Endomembrane System
- Mitochondria - “Power House of the Cell”
- Plastids
- Ribosomes - "The sites of protein synthesis"
- Cilia and Flagella
- Centrosome and Centrioles
- Cytoskeleton
- Structure of the Cell > Nucleus: “Brain” of the Cell
- Microbodies
- Plant Cell Vs Animal Cell
- Difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria.
- Chromatin
Biomolecules
- Concept of Biomolecules
- Analysis of Chemical Composition
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Lipids
- Primary and Secondary Metabolites
- Biomacromolecules
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Polysaccharides
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Nucleic Acids
- Structure of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Enzymes - Chemical Reactions
- Enzyme- High Rates Chemical Conversion
- Nature of Enzyme Action
- Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
- Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes
- Enzymes - Co-factors
Cell Cycle and Cell Division
- Cell Cycle - "Divide, Grow and Redivide"
- Phases of Cell Cycle
- Comparison table between the G, S, and G₂ phases
- Mitosis > Karyokinesis (Division of Nucleus)
- Mitosis > Cytokinesis (Division of Cytoplasm)
- Significance of Mitosis
- Meiosis: Reduction Division
- Stages of Meiosis: Meiosis I
- Stages of Meiosis: Meiosis II
- Comparison table between Meiosis I and Meiosis II
- Significance of Meiosis
Transport in Plants
- Introduction of Transport in Plants
- Diffusion
- Active Transport
- Turgidity and Flaccidity (Plasmolysis)
- Imbibition
- Comparison of Different Transport Processes
- Plant Water Relation
- Long Distance Transport of Water
- Plants Absorb Water
- Water Movement up a Plant
- Transpiration - Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise
- Uptake and Transport of Mineral Nutrients
- Uptake of Mineral Ions
- Phloem Transport - Flow from Source to Sink
- Phloem Transport - Pressure Flow Or Mass Flow Hypothesis
- Diffusion of Gases
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
- Concept of Photosynthesis
- Experiments on Photosynthesis
- Site of Photosynthesis
- Pigments in Photosynthesis
- Light Reaction
- Electron Transport
- Splitting of Water
- Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation
- Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
- Use of ATP and NADPH
- Primary Acceptor of CO2
- The Calvin Cycle
- The C4 Pathway
- Photorespiration
- Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Digestion and Absorption
- Introduction of Digestion and Absorption
- Alimentary Canal
- Digestive Glands
- Role of Digestive Enzymes and Gastrointestinal Hormones
- Peristalsis, Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation of Proteins, Carbohydrates and Fats
- Calorific Values of Proteins
- Calorific Values of Carbohydrates
- Calorific Values of Fats
- Digestion of Food
- Absorption of Digested Products
- Nutritional and Digestive Tract Disorders
- Egestion of Food
- Nutritional and Digestive Tract Disorders
Respiration in Plants
- Introduction of Respiration in Plants
- Breathing in Plants
- Cellular Respiration
- Glycolysis
- Fermentation
- Aerobic Respiration
- Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle or Kreb’s Cycle)
- Electron Transport System (Ets) and Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Respiratory Balance Sheet
- Amphibolic Pathways
- Respiratory Quotient
Plant Growth and Development
- Introduction of Plant Growth and Development
- Plant Growth
- Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate
- Plant Growth is Measurable
- Phases of Plant Growth
- Plant Growth Rate
- Conditions for Growth
- Types of Plant Growth
- Conditions for Plant Growth
- Differentiation, De-differentiation, Re- Differentiation
- Plant Development
- Plant Growth Regulators
- Auxins
- Gibberellins
- Cytokinins
- Ethylene
- Abscisic Acid (ABA)
- Role of PGRs
Breathing and Exchange of Gases
- Respiration
- Respiration in Animals
- Human Respiratory System
- Mechanism of Respiration > Breathing
- Mechanism of Respiration > External Respiration
- Mechanism of Respiration > Internal Respiration
- Difference between Inspiration and Expiration
- Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
- Exchange of Gases
- Transport of Gases
- Regulation of Respiration
- Disorders of Respiratory System
Body Fluids and Circulation
- Fluids in Our Body
- Blood
- Plasma (The Liquid Portion of Blood)
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Composition of Blood > Cellular Elements: Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Difference between RBCs, WBCs and Platelets
- Blood Transfusion and Blood Groups (ABO and Rh system)
- Coagulation of Blood
- Lymph and Lymphatic System
- Circulatory Pathways
- Human Circulatory System
- Cardiac Cycle
- Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation (Double Circulation)
- Regulation of Cardiac Activity
- Disorders of Circulatory System
Excretory Products and Their Elimination
- Excretion
- Modes of Excretion: Ammonotelism, Ureotelism, and Uricotelism
- Organisms and Their Excretory Structures
- Human Excretory System
- Kidney and Its Internal Structure
- Structure of a Kidney Tubule (Nephrons)
- Function of the Tubules
- Urine Formation
- Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate
- Regulation of Kidney Function
- Micturition
- Role of other organs in excretion
- Disorders of the Excretory System
Locomotion and Movement
- Introduction of Locomotion and Movement
- Types of Movement
- Muscles
- Comparison Between Skeletal, Visceral And Cardiac Muscles
- Skeletal Muscle (Voluntary Muscle)
- Structure of Contractile Proteins
- Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
- Skeletal System
- The Human Skeleton: Axial Skeleton
- The Human Skeleton: Appendicular Skeleton
- Joints and Its Classification
- Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
Neural Control and Coordination
Chemical Coordination and Integration
- Introduction of Chemical Coordination and Integration
- Human Endocrine Glands and Harmones
- Human Endocrine System
- The Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis Gland
- The Pineal Gland
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Gland
- Thymus Gland
- Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal Gland)
- Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
- Testis
- Ovary
- Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract
- Mechanism of Hormone Action
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Flower
- Pre-fertilisation in Flowering Plant: Structures and Events
- Structure and Development of Anther
- Pre-fertilization in Plant: Microsporangium
- Microsporogenesis
- Structure and Development of Male Gametophyte
- Structure and Development of Ovule
- Megasporogenesis
- Development of Female Gametophyte or Embryo Sac
- Pollination
- Autogamy
- Geitonogamy
- Xenogamy
- Agents of Pollination
- Anemophily
- Hydrophily
- Animal-Mediated Pollination (Zoophily)
- Outbreeding Devices
- Pollen Pistil Interaction
- Artificial Hybridization or Artificial Fertilization
- Double Fertilization and Triple Fusion
- Post-Fertilization Structures and Events
- Endosperm
- Embryo
- The Seed
- Fruits
- Apomixis
- Polyembryony
Human Reproduction
- Human Reproduction
- The Male Reproductive System
- The Female Reproductive System
- Gametogenesis
- Spermatogenesis
- Oogenesis
- Spermatogenesis Vs Oogenesis
- Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
- Major Events of Menstrual Cycle
- Menstrual Hygiene
- Fertilization in Human
- Implantation in Human
- Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
- Parturition (Birth) in Human
- Lactation in Human
Reproductive Health
- Concept of Reproductive Health
- Population Explosion and Birth Control
- Birth Control
- Natural Contraceptive Methods
- Artificial Contraceptive Methods
- Induced Abortion or Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
- Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) or Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
- Infertility
- Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)
Reproduction in Organisms
Principles of Inheritance and Variation
- Heredity and Variation
- Mendel's Experiments on Inheritance
- Monohybrid Cross
- Punnett Square
- Back Cross and Test Cross
- Inheritance of One Gene
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Dominance
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Segregation (Law of Purity of Gametes)
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Incomplete Dominance
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Co-Dominance
- Inheritance of Two Genes
- Mendel's Laws > The Law of Independent Assortment
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
- Linkage and Recombination
- Polygenic Inheritance
- Exceptions to Mendel's Principles > Pleiotropy
- Difference Between Polygenic Inheritance and Pleiotropy
- Sex Determination
- Sex Determination in Humans
- Sex Determination in Honey Bees
- Mutations
- Human Genetic Disorders
- Pedigree Analysis
- Mendelian Disorders in Humans
- Chromosomal Disorders or Abnormalities
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Introduction of Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
- Features of Double-Helix Structure of DNA
- Genetic Implications and Central Dogma
- DNA Vs RNA
- Packaging of DNA Helix
- Search for Genetic Material
- Transforming Principle
- Biochemical Characterisation of Transforming Principle
- The Genetic Material is DNA
- Chemical Differences between DNA and RNA
- The RNA World
- DNA Replication
- The Experimental Proof
- The Machinery and the Enzymes
- Transcription
- Transcription Unit
- Transcription Unit and the Gene
- Process of Transcription in Bacteria
- Process of Transcription in Eukaryotes
- Difference Between Bacterial Transcription and Eukaryotic Transcription
- Genetic Code
- Mutation and Genetic Code
- tRNA – the Adapter Molecule
- Translation
- Ribosome and Protein Synthesis
- Regulation of Gene Expression
- The Lac Operon
- Human Genome Project
- Applications and Future Challenges
- DNA Fingerprinting
- Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR)
Evolution
- Universe and Earth's Formation
- Origin of Life on Earth
- Urey and Miller’s Experiment
- Evolution of Life Forms - a Theory
- Evidences Supporting the Theory of Evolution
- Adaptive Radiation
- Convergent Evolution
- Biological Evolution
- Theories of Biological Evolution
- Hardy Weinberg’s Principle
- Natural Selection and Speciation
- Brief Account of Evolution
- Human Evolution
Human Health and Diseases
- Common Diseases in Human Beings
- Bacterial Diseases
- Viral Diseases
- Protozoan Diseases
- Helminthic Diseases
- Fungal Diseases
- Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases
- Immunity
- Types of Immunity > Innate Immunity
- Types of Immunity > Acquired Immunity
- Active and Passive Immunity
- Vaccination and Immunization
- Allergies
- Autoimmunity
- The Immune System
- Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
- Cancer
- Causes of Cancer
- Symptoms and Diagnosis of Cancer
- Prevention/Treatment of Cancer
- Drug Abuse
- Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse
- Addiction and Dependence
- Effects of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
- Prevention and Control of Drugs and Alcohol Abuse
Microbes in Human Welfare
Biotechnology - Principles and Processes
- Concept of Biotechnology
- Principles of Processes of Biotechnology
- Formation of First Recombinant DNA
- Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
- Restriction Enzymes
- Cloning Vectors
- Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)
- Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology
Biotechnology and Its Application
- Critical Areas of Research
- Applications of Biotechnology in Agriculture
- Difference Between Bt Cotton and Resistant Plants
- Biotechnological Application in Medicine
- Bioethics
- Biopiracy
Organisms and Populations
- Organisms and Their Environment
- Major Abiotic Factors
- Responses to Abiotic Factors
- Adaptations
- Population
- Population Attributes
- Population Dynamics and Measurement
- Population Growth
- Population Growth Curve
- Life History Variation
- Population Interactions
- Negative Interactions > Predation
- Negative Interactions > Competition
- Negative Interactions > Parasitism
- Positive Interactions > Commensalism
- Positive Interactions > Mutualism (Symbiosis)
- Comparison Between Types of Population Interactions
Ecosystem
Biodiversity and Conservation
Mineral Nutrition
- Methods to Study the Mineral Requirements of Plants
- Essential Mineral Elements
- Criteria for Essentiality
- Macro and Micro Nutrients and Their Role
- Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
- Toxicity of Micronutrients
- Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements
- Biological Nitrogen Fixation
Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Environmental Issues
- Pollution
- Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution: a Case Study of Delhi
- Effects of Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Water
- Solid Wastes
- Radioactive Wastes
- Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change
- Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere
- Degradation by Improper Resource Utilisation and Maintenance
- Forest Conservation
- Case Study of People's Participation in Conservation of Forests
Estimated time: 3 minutes
CBSE: Class 12
Key Points: Use of ATP and NADPH
- The biosynthetic phase uses ATP and NADPH (from light reactions) to synthesise sugars. Takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.
- Called "dark phase", but this is misleading — it does not require darkness but is independent of direct light. It depends on ATP, NADPH, CO₂, and H₂O.
- After light is removed, biosynthesis continues briefly, then stops. When light returns, it resumes — showing indirect light dependence.
- Melvin Calvin used radioactive ¹⁴C to discover that the first stable product of CO₂ fixation is 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) — a 3-carbon compound → called the Calvin cycle.
- C3 pathway - First product of CO₂ fixation = PGA (3-carbon). Found in C3 plants.
- C4 pathway - First product of CO₂ fixation = Oxaloacetic acid/OAA (4-carbon). Found in C4 plants.
