Topics
Chemical Substances-Nature and Behaviour
Chemical Reactions and Equations
- Chemical Reaction
- Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
- Chemical Equations
- Balanced and Unbalanced Chemical Equations
- Balancing Chemical Equation
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Combination Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Decomposition Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Single Displacement Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Double Displacement Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
- Corrosion of Metals
- Rancidity
World of Living
Acids, Bases and Salts
- Introduction to Acids, Bases and Indicators
- Indicators for Testing Acids and Bases
- Acids
- Properties of Acids
- Common Properties of Acids
- Uses of Acids
- Bases
- Properties of Bases
- Uses of Bases
- Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases
- Common Properties of Acids and Bases
- Strength of Acid and Base Solutions : pH Scale
- Universal Indicator
- Importance of pH in Everyday Life
- Salts
- Salts > Family of Salts
- Salts > pH of Salts
- Common Salt
- Sodium hydroxide
- Washing Soda
- Baking Soda
- Bleaching Powder
- Plaster of Paris
- Water of Crystallisation: Hydrated Salts
Natural Phenomena
Metals and Non-metals
Carbon and its Compounds
Effects of Current
Life Processes
Natural Resources
Control and Coordination
How do Organisms Reproduce?
- DNA Copying and Variation
- The Importance of Variation
- Reproduction
- Modes of Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms > Binary Fission
- Binary Fission > Simple Binary Fission
- Binary Fission > Longitudinal Binary Fission
- Binary Fission > Transverse Binary Fission
- Asexual Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms > Multiple Fission
- Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms > Fragmentation
- Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms > Regeneration
- Asexual Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms > Budding
- Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms > Budding
- Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms > Spore Formation
- Vegetative Reproduction or Vegetative Propagation
- Natural Vegetative Propagation
- Artificial Vegetative Propagation
- Tissue Culture
- Sexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction in Plants
- Pollination
- Self-pollination
- Cross-pollination
- Fertilisation in Flowering Plants
- Formation of Seed and Fruit
- Seed Germination
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Puberty
- The Male Reproductive System
- The Female Reproductive System
- Fertilization in Humans
- Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle)
- Major Events of Menstrual Cycle
- Menarche and Menopause
- Birth Control
- Natural Contraceptive Methods
- Artificial Contraceptive Methods
- Induced Abortion or Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
- Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) or Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
- Concept of Reproductive Health
Heredity
- Heredity
- Variation
- Accumulation of Variation During Reproduction
- Gregor Johann Mendel – Father of Genetics
- Monohybrid Cross
- Dihybrid Cross
- Characteristics (or Traits) Transmitted to Progeny
- Inheritance of Blood Groups
- Sex Determination in Humans
- Acquired and Inherited Traits
Light – Reflection and Refraction
- Nature of Light
- Reflection of Light
- Reflection of Light from Plane Surfaces: Plane Mirror
- Law of Reflection of Light
- Regular Reflection and Diffuse Reflection of Light
- Objects and Images
- Images Formed by a Plane Mirrors
- The Position of Image Formed in a Plane Mirror
- Uses of Plane Mirrors
- Spherical Mirrors
- Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors
- Rules for Obtaining Images Formed by Concave Mirrors
- Formation of Different Types of Images by a Concave Mirror
- Representation of Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams
- Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
- Mirror Formula and Magnification
- Rules for Obtaining Images Formed by Convex Mirrors
- Formation of Image by a Convex Mirror
- Refraction of Light
- Effects of Refraction of Light
- Laws of Refraction of Light
- Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab
- The Refractive Index
- Refraction by Spherical Lenses
- Rules for Obtaining Images Formed by Convex Lenses
- Formation of Different Types of Images by a Convex Lens
- Image Formation by Lenses
- Image Formation in Lenses Using Ray Diagrams
- Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
- Lens Formula and Magnification
- Lens Formula and Magnification Formulae for a Concave Lens
- Power of a Lens
The Human Eye and the Colourful World
- Human Eye
- Working of the Eye
- Rods and Cones
- Power of Accommodation
- Range of Vision of a Normal Human Eye
- Advantages of Having Two Eyes for Vision
- Defects of Vision and Their Corrections > Myopia
- Defects of Vision and Their Corrections > Hypermetropia
- Defects of Vision and Their Corrections > Presbyopia
- Glass Prism
- Refraction of Light through a Prism
- Dispersion of Light Through a Prism
- The Rainbow
- Atmospheric Refraction
- Scattering of Light
Electricity
- Electric Charges
- Conductors and Insulators
- Electric Potential and Potential Difference
- Electric Current
- Electric Circuit
- Circuit Diagram
- Ohm's Law
- Resistance of a Conductor
- Graph Between V and I
- Experiment to Verify Ohm's Law
- Good Conductors, Resistors and Insulators
- Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor
- Resistivity
- Resistance of a System of Resistors
- Resistors in Series
- Resistors in Parallel
- Domestic Electric Circuits
- Heating Effect of Electric Current
- Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
- Electric Power
- Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy
- Effects Produced by Electric Current
- Applications of the Heating Effect of Current
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
- Introduction to Magnets and Their Properties
- Electromagnetism
- Magnetic Field and Field Lines
- Magnetic Field of Earth
- Magnetic Effect of Current (or Electromagnetism)
- Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor
- Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor
- Right-hand Thumb Rule
- Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop
- Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid
- Electromagnet
- Magnetism in Human Beings
- Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
- Domestic Electric Circuits
Our Environment
Notes
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION:-
The refraction of light due to the earths atmosphere on a small scale is known as atmospheric refraction.
The apparent random wavering or flickering of objects seen through a turbulent stream of hot air rising above a fire or a radiator. The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly less than that of the cooler air. Since the physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent position of the object, as seen through the hot air, fluctuates.
Twinkling of Stars:-
-The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.
-The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the earth.
-The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly different from its actual position. The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the horizon.
Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized sources of light. As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers – the star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET:-
The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.. The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon.
