Topics
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
- Chemistry
- Development of Chemistry
- Importance and Scope of Chemistry
- States of Matter
- Classification of Matter
- Need for Measurement
- Properties of Matter and Their Measurement
- The International System of Units (SI)
- Unit and Its Types
- Unit Prefixes
- Uncertainty in Measurement
- Scientific Notation
- Significant Figures
- Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in Measurement
- Dimensional Analysis
- Laws of Chemical Combination
- Law of Conservation of Mass
- Law of Constant Proportions (Law of Definite Proportions)
- Law of Multiple Proportions
- Law of Reciprocal Proportions
- Gay-Lussac's Law
- Avogadro's Law
- Dalton's Atomic Theory
- Atomic Mass
- Molecular Mass
- Formula Mass
- Mole Concept and Molar Mass
- Percentage Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formula
- Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
- Limiting Reagent
- Reactions in Solutions
Class 11
Class 12
Atomic Structure
- History of Atom
- Electrons
- Protons
- Neutrons
- Atomic Models
- J. J. Thomson’s Atomic Model
- Lord Rutherford’s Atomic model
- Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic Model
- Atomic Number (Z) and Mass Number (A)
- Isobars
- Isotopes
- Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Atomic Model
- Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
- Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck's Quantum Theory of Radiation
- The Photoelectric Effect
- Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels - Atomic Spectra
- Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom
- Hydrogen Spectrum
- Limitations of Bohr's Model
- Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
- Dual Behaviour of Matter: De Broglie's relationship
- Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Energies of Orbitals
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Filling of Orbitals in Atom
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Electronic Configuration of Atoms
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Concept of Shells and Subshells
- Structure of the Atom and Nucleus
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
- Concept of Chemical Bonding
- Periodic Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
- Kossel and Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Octet Rule
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Covalent Bond
- Lewis Structures (Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules)
- Formal Charge
- Limitations of the Octet Rule
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- Bond Parameters
- Bond Length
- Bond Enthalpy
- Bond Angle
- Bond Order
- Resonance Structures
- Polarity of Bonds
- Dipole Moment
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Valence Bond Theory - Orbital Overlap Concept
- Valence Bond Theory - Directional Properties of Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals
- Valence Bond Theory - Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Strength of Sigma (σ) bond and pi (π) bond
- Hybridisation
- Types of Hybridisation
- Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp Hybridisation
- Hybridisation of Elements Involving d Orbitals
- Molecular Orbital Theory
- Formation of Molecular Orbitals - Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
- Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals
- Types of Molecular Orbitals
- Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals
- Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behaviour
- Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
- Magnetic Nature of the Compounds
- Hydrogen Bonding
- Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond
- Types of Hydrogen Bonding
- Effects of Hydrogen Bonding
- Metallic Bond
Chemical Thermodynamics
- Introduction of Chemical Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic Terms
- The State of the System
- Classification of Thermodynamic Processes
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Internal Energy and Change in Internal Energy
- Thermodynamics Applications
- Enthalpy (H)
- Calorimetric Measurement of ΔU and ΔH
- Standard Enthalpy of Reactions
- Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations
- Standard Enthalpy of Formation
- Thermochemical Equations
- Hess’ Law of Constant Heat Summation
- Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions
- Spontaneity
- Is Decrease in Enthalpy a Criterion for Spontaneity
- Entropy and Spontaneity
- Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Absolute Entropy and Third Law of Thermodynamics
- Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium
Equilibrium
- Concept of Equilibrium
- Equilibrium in Physical Processes
- Solid-liquid Equilibrium
- Liquid-vapour Equilibrium
- Solid - Vapour Equilibrium
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid in Liquids
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
- General Characteristics of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes
- Equilibrium in Chemical Processes - Dynamic Equilibrium
- Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant
- Homogeneous Equilibria
- Heterogeneous Equilibria
- Applications of Equilibrium Constants
- Predicting the Extent of a Reaction
- Predicting the Direction of the Reaction
- Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
- Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G
- Factors affecting equilibria
- Effect of Inert Gas Addition
- Introduction of Chemical Equilibrium
- Effect of Concentration Change
- Effect of Pressure Change
- Effect of Temperature Change
- Effect of change in volume
- Effect of Catalyst
- Le Chatelier's Principle
- Ionic Equilibrium in Solution
- Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt
- Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
- The Brönsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases
- Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases
- Ionization of Acids and Bases
- The Ionization Constant of Water and Its Ionic Product
- The pH Scale
- Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
- Ionization of Weak Bases
- Relation Between Ka and Kb
- Relation Between Ka and Kb
- Di- and Polybasic Acids and Di- and Polyacidic Bases
- Factors Affecting Acid Strength
- Hydrolysis of Salts and the Ph of Their Solutions
- Buffer Solutions
- Concept of Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts
- Solubility Product Constant
- Common Ion Effect on Solubility of Ionic Salts
Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry
- Concept of Redox Reactions
- Classical Idea of Redox Reactions - Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
- Metallic Conductors and Electrolytic Conductors
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Introduction
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions
- Oxidation Number
- Types of Redox Reactions
- Balancing of Redox Reactions
- Redox Reactions as the Basis for Titrations
- Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number
- Balancing of Redox Reactions
- Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes
- Kohlrausch's law
- Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
- Electrochemical Cells
- Nernst Equation
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
- Significance of Classification of Elements
- Genesis of Periodic Classification
- The Modern Periodic Table
- Insights into Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
- Modern Periodic Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table
- Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Greater than 100
- Electric Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table
- Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: S-, P-, D-, F- Blocks
- The s-Block Elements
- The p-Block Elements
- The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
- The f-Block Elements (Inner-transition Elements)
- Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
- Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
- Trends in Physical Properties
- Atomic Radius
- Ionic Radius
- Ionization Enthalpy or Ionization Energy (IE) or Ionization Potential (IP)
- Electron Gain Enthalpy
- Electronegativity
- Valency
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements
- Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
- Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
- Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
- Structure of the Modern Periodic Table
- Study of Specific Groups in Periodic Table
- Physical Properties of Halogen Derivatives
- Atomic Size
Purification and Characteristics of Organic Compounds
- Purification of Organic Compounds
- Chromatography Method
- Chromatography Method > Adsorption Chromatography
- Chromatography Method > Partition Chromatography
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds
- Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Estimation of Nitrogen
- Estimation of Halogen
- Estimation of Sulphur
- Estimation of Phosphorous
- Important methods for determination of elements qualitatively and quantitatively
Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry
- Organic Chemistry
- Tetravalence of Carbon - Shapes of Organic Compounds
- Some Characteristic Features of π Bonds
- Structural Representation of Organic Compounds
- Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas
- Three-dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules
- Classification of Organic Compounds
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
- Homologous Series
- The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds having Functional Group(s)
- Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds
- Isomerism
- Fission of a Covalent Bond
- Substrate and Reagent
- Electron Movement in Organic Reactions
- Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds
- Inductive Effect
- Resonance Structure
- Resonance Effect
- Electromeric Effect (E Effect)
- Hyperconjugation
- Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms
- Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds
- Sublimation
- Crystallisation Method
- Fractional Distillation Method
- Steam Distillation
- Differential Extraction
- Chromatography Method
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Other Elements
- Quantitative Analysis of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Nitrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Halogens
- Quantitative Analysis of Sulphur
- Quantitative Analysis of Phosphorus
- Quantitative Analysis of Oxygen
- Bond Fission
Hydrocarbons
- Hydrocarbons
- Classification of Hydrocarbons
- Alkanes
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Preparation of Alkanes
- Physical Properties of Alkanes
- Chemical Properties of Alkanes
- Conformations (Ethane)
- Mechanism for the Monochlorination of Methane
- Alkenes
- Structure of Double Bond (Ethene)
- Nomenclature
- Isomerism in Alkenes
- Preparation of Alkenes
- Physical Properties of Alkenes
- Chemical Properties of Alkenes
- Stereochemistry of Electrophilic Addition
- Alkynes
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Triple Bond
- Preparation of Alkynes
- Physical Properties of Alkynes
- Chemical Properties of Alkynes
- Addition of Hydrogen Halides to Alkyne
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Benzene
- Aromaticity (Huckel Rule)
- Preparation of Benzene
- Physical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Chemical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Directive Influence of a Functional Group in Monosubstituted Benzene
- Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Concept of Reactivity in Electrophilic Substitution ESR
- Oxidation of the Side Chain
- Carcinogenicity and Toxicity
Solutions
- Introduction to Solution
- Types of Solutions
- Expressing Concentration of Solutions
- Solubility
- Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
- Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions
- Raoult’s Law as a Special Case of Henry’s Law
- Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
- Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions
- Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
- Elevation of Boiling Point
- Depression of Freezing Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Reverse Osmosis and Water Purification
- Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic Solutions
- Abnormal Molar Masses
- Van't Hoff Factor
Chemical Kinetics
- Concept of Chemical Kinetics
- Rate of Chemical Reaction
- Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction
- Dependence of Rate on Reactant Concentrations: Rate Law and Rate Constant
- Order of a Reaction
- Units of Rate Constant
- Molecularity of Elementary Reactions
- Integrated Rate Equations
- Zero Order Reactions
- First Order Reactions
- Half Life Period of a Reaction
- Pseudo First Order Reaction
- Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction
- Effect of Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction
- Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
p-Block Elements
- Group 13 Elements - The Boron Family
- Important Compounds of Boron
- Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron
- Group 14 Elements - The Carbon Family
- Group 15 Elements - The Nitrogen Family
- Group 16 Elements - The Oxygen Family
- Group 17 Elements - The Halogen Family
- Group 18 Elements - The Noble gas Family
d and f-block Elements
- General Introduction of "d" and "f" Block Element
- Position in the Periodic Table - d-block Elements
- Electronic Configurations of the d-block Elements
- General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements - Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals
- F-block Elements
- The Lanthanoids
- The Actinoids
- Applications of d and f Block Elements
Coordination Compounds
- Concept of Coordination Compounds
- Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds
- Some Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Formulas of Mononuclear Coordination Entities
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Naming of Mononuclear Coordination Compounds
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Coordination Compounds
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
- Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
- Colour in Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Metal Carbonyls
- Importance and Applications of Coordination Compounds
Organic Compounds Containing Halogens
- Introduction to Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Classification of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nomenclature of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nature of C-X Bond
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloarenes
- Physical Properties of Haloalkanes
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Elimination Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Reaction with Metals
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Nucleophilic Substitution
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Reaction with Metals
- Polyhalogen Compounds
Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen
- Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Classification of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Structures of Functional Groups of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Preparation of Alcohols and Phenols
- Physical Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
- Chemical Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
- Preparation of Commercially Important Alcohols
- Preparation of Ethers
- Physical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Cleavege of C-O Bonds
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Electrophilic Substitution
- Concepts of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Structure of Carbonyl Group
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reduction
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Oxidation
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reactions Due to α-hydrogen
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Other Reactions
- Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of O-H Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of C-OH Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving –COOH Group
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
- Uses of Carboxylic Acids
Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
- Introduction of Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
- Concept of Amines
- Classification of Amines
- Structure of Amines
- Nomenclature of Animes
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Preparation of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Basic Character of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Alkylation and Acylation
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Carbylamine Reaction
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Nitrous Acid
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Arylsulphonyl Chloride
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Electrophilic Substitution
- Identification of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amines
- Uses of Amines
- Diazonium Salts
- Diazonium Salts
- Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Displacement of Nitrogen
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Retention of Diazo Group
- Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds
Biomolecules
- Concept of Biomolecules
- Classification of Carbohydrates
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Carbohydrates
- Preparation of Glucose
- Fructose
- D- and L-configuration
- Haworth Representation
- Structures of Glucose
- Lactose
- Maltose
- Importance of Carbohydrates
- Amylose
- Amylopectin
- Cellulose
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Amino Acids
- Peptide Bond
- Classification of Proteins on the Basis of Molecular Shape
- Structure of Proteins
- Denaturation of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Hormones
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Vitamins
- Classification of Vitamins
- Important Vitamins, Their Sources and Their Deficiency Diseases
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Nucleic Acids
- Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids
Environmental Chemistry
- Introduction of Environmental Chemistry
- Atmospheric Pollution
- Tropospheric Pollution - Gaseous Air Pollutants
- Tropospheric Pollution - Particulate Pollutants
- Stratospheric Pollution
- Smog
- Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
- Industrial Waste
- International Standards for Drinking Water
- Soil Pollution
- Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution
- Green Chemistry - Introduction
- Green Chemistry in Day-to-day Life
Hydrogen
- Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table
- Dihydrogen
- Preparation of Dihydrogen
- Properties and Uses of Dihydrogen
- Hydrides
- Structure of Water
- Structure of Ice
- Physical Properties of Water
- Chemical Properties of Water
- Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water
- Causes of Hardness
- Removal of Hardness of Water
- Heavy Water
- Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Physical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Dihydrogen as a Fuel
Some p-Block elements
- Introduction to p-block Elements
- Group 13 Elements - The Boron Family
- Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron
- Important Compounds of Boron
- Preparation and Properties of Aluminium
- Uses of Boron and Aluminium
- Group 14 Elements - The Carbon Family
- Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
- Straight chains, Branched chains, and Rings of Carbon atoms
- Straight chains, Branched chains, and Rings of Carbon atoms
- Allotropes of Carbon > Diamond
- Allotropes of Carbon > Graphite
- Allotropes of Carbon > Fullerene
- Allotropes of Carbon > Diamond
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Monoxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicon Tetrachloride
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicones
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicates
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Zeolites
States of Matter: Gases and Liquids
- Matter (Substance)
- States of Matter
- The Solid State
- The Liquid State
- The Gaseous State
- Intermolecular Forces
- Dipole - Dipole Forces
- Dipole-induced Dipole Forces
- Dispersion Forces Or London Forces
- Hydrogen Bond
- Intermolecular Forces Vs. Thermal Interactions
- Melting and Boiling Points
- The Gaseous State
- Gas Laws
- Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
- Charles’ Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship)
- Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure- Temperature Relationship)
- Ideal Gas Equation
- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
- Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour
- Liquefaction of Gases
- Liquid State
- Vapour Pressure
- Viscosity
- Surface Tension
s-block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)
- Introduction of s-block elements
- Group 1 Elements - Alkali Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals
- Anomalous Properties of Lithium
- Some Important Compounds of Sodium
- Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium
- Group 2 Elements - Alkaline Earth Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals
- Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium
- Some Important Compounds of Calcium
- Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium
Principles Related to Practical Chemistry
- Detection of Elements: Lassaigne's Test
- Detection of Nitrogen
- Detection of Sulfur
- Detection of Halogen
- Detection of Phosphorus
- Chemistry Involved in Preparation of Inorganic Compounds
- p-Nitro Acetanilide
- Aniline Yellow
- Titration
- Concept of Redox Reactions
- Redox Titrations
- Tests for Acidic Hydrogen and Unsaturation
- Distinguishing Test of Terminal and Non-Terminal Alkynes
- Detection of Alcohols
- Iodoform Test
- Detection of Phenols
- Tests for Aldehydes
- Tests for Acids, Esters and Amides
- Test for Amines
- Hofmann Mustard Oil Test
- Hinsberg Reagent
- Mulliken- Barker's Test: Test of Nitro group
- Test for Carbohydrates and Sugars
- Test for Proteins
- Tests for Ketones
- Tests for Aromatic Alcohol (Phenol)
- Identification of Functional Groups
- Qualitative Analysis> Systematic Analysis of Anions
- Confirmatory Test for Anions
- Analysis of Cations
- Analysis of Zero Group Cation
- Analysis of Group-I Cations
- Analysis of Group-II Cations
- Analysis of Group-II A Cations
- Analysis of Group-II B Cations
- Analysis of Group-III Cations
- Analysis of Group-IV Cations
- Analysis of Group-V Cations
- Analysis of Group-VI Cations
- Confirmatory Tests for Cations
- Enthalpy of Solution of Solid Copper Sulphate
- Enthalpy of Neutralisation of a Strong Acid with Strong Base
- Crystalloids and Colloids
- Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
- Lyophilic and Lyophobic Sols
- Study of Rate of Reaction between Hydrogen peroxide and Iodine Ion
Surface Chemistry
- Surface Chemistry
- Introduction of Adsorption
- Distinction Between Adsorption and Absorption
- Adsorption
- Mechanism of Adsorption
- Types of Adsorption
- Adsorption Isotherms (Freundlich and Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm)
- Applications of Adsorption
- Factors Affecting Adsorption of Gases on Solids
- Adsorption from Solution Phase
- Catalysis
- Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Shape-selective Catalysis by Zeolites
- Enzyme Catalysis
- Catalysts in Industry
- Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Catalytic Activity and Selectivity
- Colloids
- Classification of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Dispersions
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Solutions
- Colloids Around Us
- Emulsions
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Introduction of Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
- Uses of Alcohols
- Classification of Alcohols
- Nomenclature of Alcohols
- Isomerism in Alcohols
- Structure of functional group (-OH) of Alcohols
- Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
- Preparation of Commercially Important Alcohols
- Physical Properties of Alcohols
- Chemical Properties of Alcohols
- Phenols
- Classification of Phenols
- Nomenclature of phenols
- Structure of Functional Group (Ar - OH) of Phenol
- Methods of Preparation of Phenols
- Physical Properties of phenol
- Chemical Properties of Phenol
- Acidic Nature of Phenol
- Uses of Phenols
- Ethers
- Classification of Ethers
- Nomenclature of ethers
- Structure of functional group (R-O-R')
- Isomerism of Ether
- Preparation of Ethers
- Physical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Properties of Ethers
- Uses of Ethers
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Introduction to Haloalkanes
- Classification of Haloalkanes
- Nomenclature of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nature of C - X Bond in Haloalkanes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes
- Physical Properties of Haloalkanes
- Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes
- Stereochemistry
- Nucleophilic substitution Mechanism
- Haloarenes
- Classification of Haloarenes
- Nomenclature of Haloarenes
- Nature of C - X Bond in Haloarenes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes
- Physical Properties of Haloarenes
- Chemical Properties of Haloarenes
- Polyhalogen Compounds
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Concepts of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Classification of Ketones
- Nature of Carbonyl Group
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes
- Nomenclature of Ketones
- Preparation of Aldehydes
- Preparation of Ketones
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes
- Physical Properties of Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reduction
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Oxidation
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reactions Due to α-hydrogen
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Other Reactions
- Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Carboxylic Acids
- Classification of Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
- Structure of the Carboxyl group
- Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of O-H Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of C-OH Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving –COOH Group
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
- Uses of Carboxylic Acids
Chemistry in Everyday Life
- Chemistry in Everyday Life
- Classification of Drugs
- Designing of a Drug and Action of Drugs on Targets
- Drug-target Interaction - Enzymes as Drug Targets
- Drug-target Interaction - Receptors as Drug Targets
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Neurologically Active Drugs
- Antimicrobials
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antifertility Drugs
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antacids
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antihistamines
- Chemicals in Food - Artificial Sweetening Agents and Food Preservatives
- Cleansing Agents
- Preparation from Soap: Saponification
Polymers
- Introduction to Polymers
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Source or Origin
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Structure
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Mode of Polymerisation
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Intermolecular Forces
- Classification Based on the Types of Monomeric Units
- Classification Based on the Biodegradability
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Copolymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Condensation Polymerisation Or Step Growth Polymerisation
- Some Important Polymers
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Rubber
- Molecular Mass of Polymers
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Biodegradability
- Polymers of Commercial Importance
Solid State
- States of Matter
- General Characteristics of Solid State
- Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Bragg's Law and Its Applications
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells - Primitive and Centred Unit Cells
- Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell
- Close Packed Structures of Solids
- Close Packed Structures - Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled
- Packing Efficiency
- Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice
- Efficiency of Packing in Body-centred Cubic Structures
- Packing Efficiency in hcp and ccp Structures
- Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
- Imperfections in Solids - Introduction
- Imperfections in Solids
- Types of Point Defects - Stoichiometric Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Non-stoichiometric Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Impurity Defects
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Conduction of Electricity in Metals
- Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors
- Applications of n-type and p-type Semiconductors
- Properties of Solids: Magnetic Properties
- Solid State
- Band Theory of Metals
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
- General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
- Occurrence of Metals
- Metallurgy
- Types of Separation or Concentration of an Ore
- Hydraulic Washing
- Magnetic Separation
- Froth Floatation Method
- Leaching
- Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore
- Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Application of Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy
- Refining of Crude Metals
- Metallurgy of Aluminium
- Basic Principles of Metallurgy > Extraction of Metals
- Refining of Aluminium
- Metallurgy of Copper
- Extraction of Copper
- Occurrence and Principle of Extraction of Zinc from Zinc Blende
- Metallurgy of Iron
- Extraction of Iron
- Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron
Electrochemistry
- Introduction to Electrochemistry
- Concept of Redox Reactions
- Electrochemical Cells
- Electrodes
- Galvanic or Voltaic Cell
- Electrode Potential and Cell Potential
- Galvanic Cells - Measurement of Electrode Potential
- Electrochemical Series (Electromotive Series)
- Relation Between Gibbs Energy Change and Emf of a Cell
- Nernst Equation
- Nernst Equation
- Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation
- Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs Energy of the Reaction
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions - Introduction
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
- Measurement of the Conductivity of Ionic Solutions
- Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Concentration
- Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis - Introduction
- Products of Electrolysis
- Batteries
- Primary Batteries
- Secondary Batteries
- Fuel Cells
- Corrosion of Metals
- Prevention of Corrosion
Estimated time: 4 minutes
CBSE: Class 12
Laws: Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
Faraday's laws of electrolysis are quantitative laws that describe the effects of electrolysis. They are:
First Law: The mass of any substance deposited or liberated at any electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
W ∝ Q
W = ZQ (Z = electrochemical equivalent)
W = ZIt
\[(Z=\frac{\text{Equivalent Weight}}{96500})\]
Second Law: When the same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different electrolytes connected in series, the weight of substances produced at the electrodes is directly proportional to their equivalent weights.
\[\frac{\text{Weight of }M_1\mathrm{~Deposited}}{\text{Weight of }M_2\mathrm{~Deposited}}=\frac{\text{Eq. wt. of }M_1}{\text{Eq. wt. of }M_2}\cdots\cdots\]
