Topics
Some Basic Concepts in Chemistry
- Introduction of Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
- Development of Chemistry
- Importance of Chemistry
- Nature of Matter
- Atoms: Building Blocks of Matter
- Molecules
- Elements
- Compound
- Properties of Matter and Their Measurement
- The International System of Units (SI)
- Mass and Weight
- Laws of Chemical Combination
- Law of Conservation of Matter (Law of Conservation of Mass)
- Law of Constant Proportions (Law of Definite Proportions)
- Law of Multiple Proportions
- Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
- Avogadro's Law
- Dalton's Atomic Theory
- Atomic and Molecular Masses
- Atomic Mass
- Average Atomic Mass
- Molecular Mass
- Formula Mass
- Mole Concept
- Percentage Composition
- Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
- Concentration of a Solution
- Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in Measurement
- Uncertainty in Measurement
- Scientific Notation
- Dimensional Analysis
- Significant Figures
States of Matter
- Classification of Matter
- States of Matter
- The Solid State
- The Liquid State
- The Gaseous State
- Intermolecular Forces
- Intermolecular Forces
- Dispersion Forces Or London Forces
- Dipole - Dipole Forces
- Dipole-induced Dipole Forces
- Hydrogen Bond
- Intermolecular Forces Vs. Thermal Interactions
- Gas Laws
- Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
- Charles’ Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship)
- Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure- Temperature Relationship)
- Avogadro's Law
- Ideal Gas Equation
- Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance
- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
- Absolute Scale of Temperature
- Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds
- Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Classification of Gases: Real Gases and Ideal Gases
- Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour
- Liquefaction of Gases
- Compressibility Factor
- Van Der Waals Equation
- Vapour Pressure
- Viscosity
- Surface Tension
- States of Matter
- General Characteristics of Solid State
- Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells - Primitive and Centred Unit Cells
- Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell
- Bragg's Law and Its Applications
- Close Packed Structures of Solids
- Close Packed Structures - Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled
- Packing Efficiency
- Packing Efficiency in hcp and ccp Structures
- Efficiency of Packing in Body-centred Cubic Structures
- Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice
- Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
- Imperfections in Solids - Introduction
- Imperfections in Solids
- Types of Point Defects - Stoichiometric Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Impurity Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Non-stoichiometric Defects
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Conduction of Electricity in Metals
- Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors
- Applications of n-type and p-type Semiconductors
- Properties of Solids: Magnetic Properties
- Crystal Structure of Solids
Atomic Structure
- Subatomic Particles
- Subatomic Particles
- Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron
- Charge on the Electron
- Subatomic Particles
- Atomic Models
- J. J. Thomson’s Atomic Model
- Advantage and Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model
- Lord Rutherford’s Atomic model
- Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
- Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
- Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels - Atomic Spectra
- Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom
- Limitations of Bohr's Model
- Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
- Dual Behaviour of Matter: De Broglie's relationship
- Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Concept of Shells and Subshells
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Energies of Orbitals
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Filling of Orbitals in Atom
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Electronic Configuration of Atoms
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
- Concept of Chemical Bonding
- Kossel and Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Octet Rule
- Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Covalent Bond
- Lewis Structures (Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules)
- Formal Charge
- Limitations of the Octet Rule
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- Bond Parameters
- Bond Length
- Bond Angle
- Bond Enthalpy
- Bond Order
- Resonance Structures
- Polarity of Bonds
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Valence Bond Theory - Orbital Overlap Concept
- Valence Bond Theory - Directional Properties of Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals
- Valence Bond Theory - Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds
- Valence Bond Theory - Strength of Sigma (σ) bond and pi (π) bond
- Hybridisation
- Hybridisation - Introduction
- Types of Hybridisation
- Hybridisation of Elements Involving d Orbitals
- Molecular Orbital Theory
- Molecular Orbital Theory
- Formation of Molecular Orbitals - Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
- Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals
- Types of Molecular Orbitals
- Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals
- Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behaviour
- Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
- Hydrogen Bonding
- Hydrogen Bonding
- Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond
- Types of Hydrogen Bonding
- Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Numericals
- Electronegativity
- Shapes of Simple Molecules
- The Covalent Bond
- Elementary Idea of Metallic Bonding
- Co-ordinate Bonding
Chemical Thermodynamics
- Introduction of Chemical Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic Terms
- The State of the System
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - Work
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - Heat
- The Internal Energy as a State Function - the General Case
- Thermodynamics Applications
- Work
- Enthalpy, H - a Useful New State Function
- Enthalpy, H - Extensive and Intensive Properties
- Enthalpy, H - Heat Capacity
- Enthalpy, H - The Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas
- Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆U Measurements
- Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆H Measurements
- Enthalpy Change, ∆_rH of a Reaction - Reaction Enthalpy
- Standard Enthalpy of Reactions
- Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations
- Standard Enthalpy of Formation
- Thermochemical Equations
- Chemical Thermodynamics and Energetic
- Hess’ Law of Constant Heat Summation
- Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions
- Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
- Enthalpy of Atomization
- Bond Enthalpy
- Lattice Enthalpy
- Enthalpy of Solution
- Enthalpy of Dilution
- Spontaneity
- Is Decrease in Enthalpy a Criterion for Spontaneity
- Entropy and Spontaneity
- Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Absolute Entropy and Third Law of Thermodynamics
- Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium
- Laws of Thermochemistry
- Basic Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Solutions
- Introduction to Solution
- Types of Solutions
- Expressing Concentration of Solutions
- Solubility
- Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
- Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions
- Raoult’s Law as a Special Case of Henry’s Law
- Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
- Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions
- Composition of Vapour Phase
- Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass
- Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass
- Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
- Depression of Freezing Point
- Elevation of Boiling Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Reverse Osmosis and Water Purification
- Abnormal Molar Masses
- Solution Numericals
- Expressing Concentration of Solutions
- Laws of Solutions
Equilibrium
- Concept of Equilibrium
- Equilibrium in Physical Processes
- Solid-liquid Equilibrium
- Liquid-vapour Equilibrium
- Solid - Vapour Equilibrium
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid in Liquids
- Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
- General Characteristics of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes
- Equilibrium in Chemical Processes - Dynamic Equilibrium
- Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant
- Homogeneous Equlibria
- Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous Systems
- Heterogeneous Equlibria
- Applications of Equilibrium Constants
- Predicting the Extent of a Reaction
- Predicting the Direction of the Reaction
- Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
- Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G
- Factors affecting equilibria
- Effect of Concentration Change
- Effect of Pressure Change
- Effect of Inert Gas Addition
- Effect of Temperature Change
- Effect of Catalyst
- Ionic Equilibrium in Solution
- Concept of Acid, Base, and Salt
- Acids
- Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
- Concept of Ionization of Acids and Bases
- Ionization of Acids and Bases
- The Ionization Constant of Water and Its Ionic Product
- Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
- Ionization of Weak Bases
- Relation Between Ka and Kb
- Di- and Polybasic Acids and Di- and Polyacidic Bases
- Factors Affecting Acid Strength
- Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases
- Hydrolysis of Salts and the Ph of Their Solutions
- Buffer Solutions
- Concept of Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts
Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry
- Concept of Redox Reactions
- Classical Idea of Redox Reactions - Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Introduction
- Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions
- Oxidation Number
- Oxidation Number
- Types of Redox Reactions
- Redox Reactions as the Basis for Titrations
- Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number
- Balancing of Redox Reactions
- Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic Cells - Introduction
- Galvanic Cells - Measurement of Electrode Potential
- Relation Between Gibbs Energy Change and Emf of a Cell
- Nernst Equation - Introduction
- Nernst Equation
- Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation
- Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs Energy of the Reaction
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions - Introduction
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
- Measurement of the Conductivity of Ionic Solutions
- Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Concentration
- Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis - Introduction
- Electrolysis
- Types of Electrolysis
- Applications of Electrolysis > Electroplating
- Products of Electrolysis
- Batteries
- Primary Batteries
- Secondary Batteries
- Fuel Cells
- Corrosion of Metals
- Different Types of Electrodes
- Conductance and Conductivity
Chemical Kinetics
- Rate of Chemical Reaction
- Rate of Reactions
- Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction
- Elementary and Complex Reactions
- Concept of Chemical Kinetics
- Rate Law and Specific Rate Constant
- Integrated Rate Equations
- Zero Order Reactions
- First Order Reactions
- Half Life Period of a Reaction
- Pseudo First Order Reaction
- Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction
- Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
- Effect of Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction
- Theories of Rate of Reaction
Surface Chemistry
- Surface Chemistry
- Introduction of Adsorption
- Distinction Between Adsorption and Absorption
- Adsorption
- Mechanism of Adsorption
- Adsorption from Solution Phase
- Types of Adsorption
- Adsorption Isotherms (Freundlich and Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm)
- Applications of Adsorption
- Catalysis
- Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Shape-selective Catalysis by Zeolites
- Enzyme Catalysis
- Catalysts in Industry
- Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Colloids
- Classification of Colloids
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Dispersions
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Solutions
- Emulsions
- Colloids Around Us
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
- Genesis of Periodic Classification
- Modern Periodic Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table
- Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Greater than 100
- Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration
- Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: S-, P-, D-, F- Blocks
- The s-Block Elements
- The p-Block Elements
- The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
- The f-Block Elements (Inner-transition Elements)
- Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
- Physical Properties of Halogen Derivatives
- Atomic Size
- Ionic Radius
- Ionization Enthalpy or Ionization Energy (IE) or Ionization Potential (IP)
- Electron Gain Enthalpy
- Electronegativity
- Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties
- Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
- Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
- Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
- Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Numericals
- The Modern Periodic Table
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Metals
- General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
- Principles and Methods of Extraction - Concentration
- Occurrence of Metals
- Basic Principles of Metallurgy > Concentration of Ores
- Types of Separation or Concentration of an Ore
- Hydraulic Washing
- Magnetic Separation
- Froth Floatation Method
- Leaching
- Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore
- Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Application of Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy
- Oxidation Reduction
- Refining of Crude Metals
- Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron
- General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Numerical
- Basic Metallurgical Processes
- Purification and Uses of Metals
Hydrogen
- Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table
- Hydrogen
- Dihydrogen
- Preparation of Dihydrogen
- Properties and Uses of Dihydrogen
- Hydrides
- Ionic or Saline Hydrides
- Covalent or Molecular Hydride
- Metallic or Non-stoichiometric (or Interstitial) Hydrides
- Physical Properties of Water
- Water
- Structure of Water
- Structure of Ice
- Chemical Properties of Water
- Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water
- Temporary Hardness of Water
- Permanent Hardness of Water
- Hydrogen Peroxide
- Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Physical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Storage of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide
- Heavy Water
- Dihydrogen as a Fuel
- Hydrogen as a Fuel
S-block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)
- Group 1 Elements - Alkali Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals
- Anomalous Properties of Lithium
- Some Important Compounds of Sodium
- Group 2 Elements - Alkaline Earth Metals
- General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals
- Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium
- Some Important Compounds of Calcium
- Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium
- Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium
P-block Elements
- Introduction to p-block Elements
- Group 13 Elements - The Boron Family
- Boron
- Aluminum
- Important Compounds of Boron
- Some Important Compounds of Aluminium
- Group 14 Elements - The Carbon Family
- Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
- Allotropes of Carbon > Diamond
- Allotropes of Carbon > Graphite
- Allotropes of Carbon > Fullerene
- Allotropes of Carbon > Diamond
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Monoxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicon Dioxide
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicones
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicates
- Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Zeolites
- Group 15 Elements - The Nitrogen Family
- Group 15 Elements - The Nitrogen Family
- Dinitrogen
- Ammonia
- Oxides of Nitrogen
- Nitric Acid
- Phosphine
- Phosphorus Halides
- Phosphorus - Allotropic Forms
- Compounds of Phosphorus
- Oxoacids of Phosphorus
- Group 16 Elements - The Oxygen Family
- Group 16 Elements - The Oxygen Family
- Dioxygen
- Classification of Oxides
- Simple Oxides
- Ozone
- Sulphur - Allotropic Forms
- Compounds of Sulphur
- Sulphur Dioxide
- Oxoacids of Sulphur
- Sulphuric Acid
- Group 17 Elements - The Halogen Family
- Compounds of Halogens
- Group 17 Elements - The Halogen Family
- Chlorine
- Hydrogen Chloride
- Oxoacids of Halogens
- Interhalogen Compounds
- Trends in the Acidic Nature of Hydrogen Halides
- Group 18 Elements - The Noble gas Family
- Group 18 Elements - The Noble gas Family
d- and f-block Elements
- General Introduction of "d" and "f" Block Element
- Position in the Periodic Table - d-block Elements
- Electronic Configurations of the d-block Elements
- General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements - Oxides and Oxoanions of Metals
- F-block Elements
- The Lanthanoids
- The Actinoids
- Applications of d and f Block Elements
- "D" and "F" Block Elements Numericals
Co-ordination Compounds
- Concept of Coordination Compounds
- Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds
- Some Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Formulas of Mononuclear Coordination Entities
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Naming of Mononuclear Coordination Compounds
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Stereoisomerism
- Structural Isomerism
- Bonding in Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Coordination Compounds
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
- Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
- Colour in Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Metal Carbonyls
- Stability of Coordination Compounds
- Importance and Applications of Coordination Compounds
- Coordination Compounds Numerical
- Organo Metallic Compounds
- Magnetic Moment of a Coil
- Coordination Number
Environmental Chemistry
- Atmospheric Pollution
- Tropospheric Pollution - Gaseous Air Pollutants
- Tropospheric Pollution - Particulate Pollutants
- Stratospheric Pollution
- International Standards for Drinking Water
- Soil Pollution
- Industrial Waste
- Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution
- Green Chemistry - Introduction
- Green Chemistry in Day-to-day Life
Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds
- Purification of Organic Compounds
- Purification of Solids
- Sublimation
- Crystallisation Method
- Simple Distillation Method
- Fractional Distillation Method
- Distillation Under Reduced Pressure (Vacuum Distillation)
- Steam Distillation
- Solvent Extraction (Using a Separating Funnel Method)
- Chromatography Method
- Chromatography Method > Adsorption Chromatography
- Chromatography Method > Partition Chromatography
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Other Elements
- Quantitative Analysis of Carbon and Hydrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Nitrogen
- Quantitative Analysis of Halogens
- Quantitative Analysis of Sulphur
- Quantitative Analysis of Phosphorus
- Quantitative Analysis of Oxygen
- Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry
- Tetravalence of Carbon - Shapes of Organic Compounds
- Organic Compounds
- Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas
- Three-dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules
- Classification of Organic Compounds
- Nomenclature
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
- Nomenclature of Organic Compounds having Functional Group(s)
- Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds
- Isomerism
- Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism
- Fission of a Covalent Bond
- Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
- Electron Movement in Organic Reactions
- Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds
- Inductive Effect
- Resonance Structure
- Resonance Effect
- Electromeric Effect (E Effect)
- Hyperconjugation
- Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms
Hydrocarbons
- Classification of Hydrocarbons
- Alkanes
- Alkanes
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Preparation of Alkanes from Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, Alkyl Halides and Carboxylic Acids
- Conformations (Ethane)
- Mechanism of Halogenation of Alkane
- Physical Properties of Alkanes
- Chemical Properties of Alkanes
- Alkenes
- Structure of Double Bond (Ethene)
- Nomenclature
- Preparation of Alkenes from Alkynes, Alkyl Halides, Vicinal Dihalides and Alcohols by Acidic Dehydration
- Isomerism
- Physical Properties of Alkenes
- Chemical Properties of Alkenes
- Alkynes
- Alkynes
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Triple Bond
- Preparation of Alkynes
- Physical Properties of Alkynes
- Chemical Properties of Alkynes
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Structure of Benzene
- Aromaticity (Huckel Rule)
- Preparation of Benzene
- Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Concept of Reactivity in Electrophilic Substitution ESR
- Directive Influence of a Functional Group in Monosubstituted Benzene
- Physical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Chemical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Carcinogenicity and Toxicity
Organic Compounds Containing Halogens
- Introduction of Organic Compounds Containing Halogens
- Introduction to Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nomenclature
- Nature of C-X Bond
- Classification of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Physical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Hydrocarbons: Alkanes
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Elimination Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Reaction with Metals
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Nucleophilic Substitution
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Reaction with Metals
- Polyhalogen Compounds
- Haloalkanes and Haloarenes Numericals
Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen
- Introduction of Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen
- Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Classification of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Nomenclature of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Structures of Functional Groups of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Identification of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols
- Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
- Methods of Preparation of Phenols
- Chemical Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
- Chemical Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
- Reactions Involving Cleavage of O-H Bond
- Reactions Involving Cleavage of Carbon–Oxygen (C–O) Bond in Alcohols
- Reactions of Phenols
- Preparation of Commercially Important Alcohols
- Preparation of Ethers
- Physical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Cleavege of C-O Bonds
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Electrophilic Substitution
- Concepts of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Structure of the Carbonyl Group
- Preparation of Aldehydes
- Preparation of Ketones
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reduction
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Oxidation
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reactions Due to α-hydrogen
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Other Reactions
- Relative Reactivities of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
- Structure of the Carboxyl group
- Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of O-H Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of C-OH Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving –COOH Group
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
- Uses of Carboxylic Acids
Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
- Introduction of Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
- Structure of Amines
- Classification of Amines
- Concept of Amines
- Nomenclature of Animes
- Preparation of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Basic Character of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Alkylation and Acylation
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Carbylamine Reaction
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Nitrous Acid
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Arylsulphonyl Chloride
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Electrophilic Substitution
- Uses of Amines
- Identification of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amines
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Diazonium Salts
- Diazonium Salts
- Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Displacement of Nitrogen
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Retention of Diazo Group
- Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds
- Physical Properties of Diazonium Salts
- Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen Numericals
- Amides, Cyanides and Lsocyanldes
- Nitrocompounds, Alkyl Nitrites and Diazonium Salts
Polymers
- Introduction to Polymers
- Preparation of Polymers
- Classification of Polymers Based on Source
- Classification of Polymers Based on Structure
- Classification of Polymers Based on Mode of Polymerisation
- Classification of Polymers Based on Molecular Forces
- Some Important Polymers
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Condensation Polymerisation Or Step Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Copolymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Rubber
- Molecular Mass of Polymers
- Properties of Polymers
- Biodegradable Polymers
- Polymers of Commercial Importance
- Uses of Polymers
- Polymers Numericals
Biomolecules
- Concept of Biomolecules
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Carbohydrates
- Classification of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccahrides
- Preparation of Glucose
- Structures of Glucose
- Fructose
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
- Importance of Carbohydrates
- Introduction of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Amino Acids
- Classification of Amino Acids
- Structure of Proteins
- Denaturation of Proteins
- Peptide
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Hormones
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Mechanism of Enzyme Action
- Classification of Vitamins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Nucleic Acids
- Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids
- Structure of Nucleic Acids
- Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids
- Biomolecules Numericals
Chemistry in Everyday Life
- Chemistry in Everyday Life
- Classification of Drugs
- Drug-target Interaction - Enzymes as Drug Targets
- Drug-target Interaction - Receptors as Drug Targets
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antacids
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antihistamines
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Neurologically Active Drugs
- Antimicrobials
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antifertility Drugs
- Chemicals in Food - Artificial Sweetening Agents and Food Preservatives
- Cleansing Agents
- Chemistry in Everyday Life Numericals
Estimated time: 10 minutes
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Classification of Colloids
(i) Based on Physical State of Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
| Dispersed Phase | Dispersion Medium | Type | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Solid | Solid | Solid sol | Coloured glass, gem stones, porcelain, paper |
| Solid | Liquid | Sol / Gel | Paints, starch solution, gold sol, muddy water |
| Solid | Gas | Aerosol | Smoke, dust |
| Liquid | Solid | Gel | Cheese, butter, jellies |
| Liquid | Liquid | Emulsion | Milk, hair cream |
| Liquid | Gas | Aerosol | Fog, mist, cloud, insecticide sprays |
| Gas | Solid | Solid sol | Pumice stone, foam rubber, plaster |
| Gas | Liquid | Foam | Froth, whipped cream, soap lather |
(ii) Based on Interaction / Affinity of Phases
| Feature | Lyophilic Sols | Lyophobic Sols |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Liquid-loving (lyo = solvent, philic = loving) | Liquid-hating (phobic = hating) |
| Preparation | Formed easily by direct mixing | Formed only by special methods |
| Stability | Self-stabilized; reversible | Unstable; require stabilizers; irreversible |
| Electrolyte effect | Large amount of electrolyte causes coagulation | Small amount of electrolyte causes coagulation |
| Viscosity | Much higher than dispersion medium | Nearly same as dispersion medium |
| Surface tension | Lower than dispersion medium | Nearly same as dispersion medium |
| Examples | Starch, gelatin, proteins, gum | Au sol, As₂S₃, Fe(OH)₃ |
(iii) Based on Molecular Size
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Multimolecular colloids | Aggregates of atoms or small molecules; size < 10³ pm | Gold sol, sulphur molecules |
| Macromolecular colloids | Individual molecules are large enough to be colloidal dimensions | Starch, cellulose, proteins, polythene, nylon, plastics |
| Associated colloids / Micelles | Normal electrolytes at low concentration; form colloidal aggregates (micelles) at high concentration | Soaps, detergents |
