Topics
Std. XI
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Std XII
Structure of Atom
- Atomic Concepts
- Subatomic Particles
- Atomic Number and Mass Number
- Isotopes
- Isobars
- Isotones
- Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic Model
- Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Atomic Model
- Line Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
- Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom
- De Broglie's Explanation
- Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
- Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Energies of Orbitals
- Electronic Configuration of Atom
Chemical Bonding
- Concept of Chemical Bonding
- Kossel and Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- Lattice Enthalpy
- The Covalent Bond
- Lewis Structures (Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules)
- Formal Charge
- Limitations of the Octet Rule
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Hybridization
- Importance and Limitations of Valence Bond Theory
- Molecular Orbital Theory
- Parameters of Covalent Bond
- Dipole Moment
- Covalent Character of Ionic Bond
- Resonance
Redox Reactions
Elements of Group 1 and Group 2
States of Matter: Gaseous and Liquid States
- States of Matter
- Intermolecular Forces
- Characteristic Properties of Gases
- Gas Laws
- Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
- Charles’ Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship)
- Gay-Lussac's Law
- Avogadro's Law
- Ideal Gas Equation
- Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Deviation from Ideal Behaviour
- Liquefaction of Gases and Critical Constant
- Liquid State
Adsorption and Colloids
- Adsorption
- Types of Adsorption
- Factors Affecting Adsorption of Gases on Solids
- Adsorption Isotherms (Freundlich and Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm)
- Applications of Adsorption
- Catalysis
- Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Colloids
- Classification of Colloids
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Dispersions
- Methods to Effect Coagulation
- Emulsions
- Applications of Colloids
Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry
- Organic Chemistry
- Structural Representation of Organic Molecules
- Classification of Organic Compounds
- Nomenclature
- IUPAC Names of Straight Chain Alkanes
- IUPAC Names of Branched Saturated Hydrocarbons
- Rules for IUPAC Nomenclature of Branched Saturated Hydrocarbons
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes)
- IUPAC Names of Simple Monocyclic Hydrocarbons
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Compounds containing one or more Functional Groups
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Substitued Benzene
- Isomerism
- Theoretical Basis of Organic Reactions
- Types of Cleavage of Covalent Bond
- Types of Reagent
- Electronic Effects in Organic Reaction
- Inductive Effect
- Resonance Structures
- Resonance Effect
- Electromeric Effect (E Effect)
- Hyperconjugation
Hydrocarbons
- Alkanes
- Preparation of Alkanes
- Physical Properties of Alkanes
- Chemical Properties of Alkanes
- Uses of Alkanes
- Alkenes
- Preparation of Alkenes
- Physical Properties of Alkenes
- Chemical Properties of Alkenes
- Uses of Alkenes
- Alkynes
- Preparation of Alkynes
- Physical Properties of Alkynes
- Chemical Properties of Alkynes
- Uses of Alkynes
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Solid State
- Introduction to Solid State
- Types of Solids
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Crystal Structure
- Cubic System
- Packing of Particles in Crystal Lattice
- Packing Efficiency
- Crystal Defects or Imperfections
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Properties of Solids: Magnetic Properties
Solutions
- Introduction to Solution
- Types of Solutions
- Capacity of Solution to Dissolve Solute
- Solubility
- Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Liquids in Liquids
- Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
- Vapour Pressure Lowering
- Boiling Point Elevation
- Depression in Freezing Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Colligative Properties of Electrolytes
Ionic Equilibrium
- Ionic Equilibria
- Types of Electrolyte
- Acids and Bases in Daily Life
- Ionization of Acids and Bases
- Autoionization of Water
- The pH Scale
- Hydrolysis of Salts
- Buffer Solutions
- Solubility Product Constant
- Common Ion Effect
Chemical Thermodynamics
- Chemical Thermodynamics
- Terms Used in Thermodynamics
- Nature of Heat and Work
- Expression for Pressure-volume (PV) Work
- Concept of Maximum Work
- Internal Energy (U)
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Enthalpy (H)
- Enthalpies of Physical Transformations
- Thermochemistry
- Spontaneous (Irreversible) Process
Electrochemistry
- Introduction to Electrochemistry
- Electrical Conduction
- Electrical Conductance of Solution
- Electrochemical Cells
- Electrolytic Cells
- Galvanic or Voltaic Cell
- Electrode Potential and Cell Potential
- Thermodynamics of Galvanic Cells
- Reference Electrodes
- Galvanic Cells Useful in Day-to-day Life
- Fuel Cells
- Electrochemical Series (Electromotive Series)
Chemical Kinetics
- Concept of Chemical Kinetics
- Rate of Reactions
- Rate of Reaction and Reactant Concentration
- Molecularity of Elementary Reactions
- Integrated Rate Equations
- Collision Theory of Bimolecular Reactions
- Temperature Dependence of Reaction Rates
- Effect of Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction
Elements of Groups 16, 17, and 18
- Occurrence of Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
- Electronic Configuration of Elements of Group 16, 17 and 18
- Atomic and Physical Properties of Elements of Group 16, 17 and 18
- Anomalous Behaviour of Oxygen
- Anomalous Behaviour of Fluorine
- Chemical Properties of Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
- Sulphur - Allotropic Forms
- Oxoacids of Sulphur
- Oxoacids of Halogens
- Oxygen and Compounds of Oxygen
- Compounds of Sulphur
- Chlorine and Compounds of Chlorine
- Interhalogen Compounds
- Compounds of Xenon
Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Transition (d Block) Elements
- Oxidation States of First Transition Series
- Physical Properties of First Transition Series
- Trends in Atomic Properties of the First Transition Series
- Compounds of Mn and Cr
- Common Properties of d Block Elements
- Metallurgy
- Basic Principles of Metallurgy > Extraction of Metals
- Inner transition (f block) elements
- Properties of f-block Elements
- Properties of Lanthanoids
- Applications of Lanthanoids
- The Actinoids
- Properties of Actinoids
- Applications of Actinoids
- Postactinoid Elements
Coordination Compounds
- Concept of Coordination Compounds
- Types of Ligands
- Terms Used in Coordination Chemistry
- Classification of Complexes
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
- Effective Atomic Number (EAN) Rule
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Stability of Coordination Compounds
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
- Applications of Coordination Compounds
Halogen Derivatives
- Introduction of Halogen Derivatives
- Classification of Halogen Derivatives
- Nomenclature of Halogen Derivatives
- Methods of Preparation of Alkyl Halides
- Physical Properties of Halogen Derivatives
- Optical Isomerism in Halogen Derivatives
- Chemical Properties of Halogen Derivatives
- Mechanism of SN reaction
- Factors influencing SN 1 and SN 2 mechanism
- Elimination reaction: Dehydrohologenotion
- Reaction with Active Metals
- Polyhalogen Compounds
Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
- Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Classification of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Nomenclature of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Preparation of Alcohols and Phenols
- Physical Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
- Chemical Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
- Ethers
- Physical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Properties of Ethers
- Uses of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Concepts of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Classification of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Polarity of Carbonyl Group
- Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Amines
- Concept of Amines
- Classification of Amines
- Nomenclature of Amines
- Preparation of Amines
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Basicity of Amines
- Chemical Properties of Amines
- Reactions of Arene Diazonium Salts
- Reaction with Arenesulfonyl Chloride
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution in Aromatic Amines
Biomolecules
- Biomolecules in the Cell
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Carbohydrates
- Monosaccahrides
- Structures of Glucose
- Fructose
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Peptide
- Structure of Proteins
- Denaturation of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Mechanism of Enzymatic Action
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Nucleic Acids
- Structure of Nucleic Acids
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
- Polymer Chemistry
- Classification of Polymers
- Rubber
- Polythene
- Teflon
- Polyacrylonitrile
- Polyamide Polymers
- Polyesters
- Phenols
- Buno-S rubber
- Neoprene
- Viscose Rayon
- Molecular Mass and Degree of Polymerization of Polymers
- Biodegradable Polymers
Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
- Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
- Principles of Green Chemistry
- The Role of Green Chemistry
- Introduction to Nanochemistry
- Characteristic Features of Nanoparticles
- Synthesis of Nanomaterials
- History of Nanotechnology
- Applications of Nanomaterials
- Nanoparticles and Nanotechnology
Estimated time: 5 minutes
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Hybridisation
Hybridisation is the process of mixing orbitals of nearly similar energy from the same atom to form a new set of equivalent orbitals of exactly equal energy called hybrid orbitals.
\[H=\frac{1}{2}[V+Y-C+A]\]
where V = valence electrons of central metal atom, Y = number of monovalent atoms surrounding central atom, C = total positive charge, A = total negative charge on the molecule.
Types of Hybridisation:
| Hybridisation | Orbitals Mixed | Shape | Bond Angle | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| sp | 1s + 1p | Linear | 180° | BeCl₂, C₂H₂ |
| sp² | 1s + 2p | Trigonal planar | 120° | BF₃, BCl₃ |
| sp³ | 1s + 3p | Tetrahedral | 109°28′ | CH₄, NH₃, H₂O |
| sp³d | 1s + 3p + 1d | Trigonal bipyramidal | 90°, 120° | PCl₅, SF₄ |
| sp³d² | 1s + 3p + 2d | Octahedral | 90° | SF₆, XeF₄ |
