Topics
Introduction to Indian Society
- Study of Indian Society: Sociological Connections with History and Anthropology
- Study of Indian Society
- Religious Beliefs and Practices in Ancient India
- Religion in Ancient Indian Civilizations
- Jainism and Buddhism in Ancient India
- Religious Beliefs and Practices in Medieval India
- Status of Women in Indian Society
- Nature of Education in Ancient and Medieval India
- Social Life in Ancient and Medieval India
- Urbanisation in Ancient India
- Concept of Sociological Imagination
- Colonial Period in India
- Effects of Colonialisation in India
- Factors Affecting Post-Independence India
- Overview of Introduction to Indian Society
Segments of Indian Society
- Introduction to Segments of Indian Society
- The Tribal Community in India
- Exploitation and Problems of the Indian Tribal Community
- Tribal Development in India
- The Rural Community in India
- Rural Development in India (Sociological Perspective)
- The Urban Community in India
- Urban Development in India
- Overview of Segments of Indian Society
Diversity and Unity in Indian Society
- Introduction of Diversity and Unity in Indian Society
- Diversity in Indian Society
- Unity in Diversity
- Challenges to National Unity
- Factors that Are Responsible for Economic Inequality in Society
- Overview of Diversity and Unity in Indian Society
Processes of Social Change in India
- Industrialisation
- Urbanisation in India
- Modernisation
- Digitalisation
- Factors Responsible for Social Change
- Overview of Processes of Social Change in India
Social Movements in India
- Meaning and Nature of Social Movement
- Types of Social Movements
- Causes of Social Movements
- Social Movements and Social Change
- Womens’ Movement in India
- Workers’ Movements
- Farmer's Movements
- Environmental Movement in India
- Overview of Social Movements in India
Social Problems in India
- Social Problem
- Ageing
- The Problems of Ageing
- Measures to Tackle the Problems of Ageing
- Concept of Unemployment
- Causes of Unemployment
- General Measures to Reduce Unemployment
- Farmers’ Suicide
- Causes of Farmers’ Suicide
- Consequences of Farmers’ Suicides
- Measures to Tackle the Problem of Farmer Suicides
- Domestic Violence
- Causes of Domestic Violence
- Consequences of Domestic Violence
- Measures to Deal with Domestic Violence
- Addiction (Substance, Internet, Mobile)
- Types of Addiction
- Causes of Addiction
- Consequences of Addiction
- Measures to Tackle Addiction Problems
- Overview of Social Problems in India
Passages
- Passages
Estimated time: 39 minutes
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definitions: Tribe
- Andre Béteille: A Tribe is a society having a clear linguistic boundary and generally a well-defined political boundary. It is within the latter that “regular determinate ways of acting” are imposed on its members. The tribe also has a cultural boundary, much less well-defined and this is the general frame for the mores, folkways, the formal and informal interactions of these members.
- L.M. Lewis: Tribal societies are small in scale and are restricted in the spatial and temporal range of their social, legal and political relations and possess a morality, a religion and world view of corresponding dimensions.
- Ralph Linton: Tribe is a group of bands, occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a certain community of interests.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Geographical Distribution of Indian Tribes
|
Region |
Location |
Names of Tribes |
|
Himalayan Region |
It has three sub-regions: |
Garo, Khasi, Jainta, Naga, Mizo, Khasa, Lepcha, Gaddi |
|
Middle Indian Region |
Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Over 55 percent of the tribal people of India live in this zone. |
Gond, Santhal, Munda, Ho, Oraon, Birhor |
|
Western-Indian Region |
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. It has about one crore tribal population. |
Bhil, Katkari, Warli, Baina |
|
South India Region |
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. About one-sixth of tribal population of India is found in the Southern zone. |
Toda, Kota, Irula, Badaga, Chenchu, Kurumba |
|
The Island Region |
The Islands of Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea. |
Andamanese, Nicobarese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese |
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Characteristics of Tribes
- Geographical Isolation – Tribes traditionally live in remote forests and hilly areas with a well-defined territory, though migration has increased over time.
- Economic Life – Their economy is based on hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, handicrafts and simple agriculture, with low technology and subsistence-level production.
- Sense of Identity – Tribes have a distinct identity based on common name, territory, traditions and shared culture, creating strong unity and solidarity.
- Endogamy Group – Marriage is usually within the tribe (endogamy). Clans regulate kinship relations and are often exogamous (marriage outside the clan).
- Distinctive Culture and Language – Each tribe has its own customs, folklore, dialect and belief system, though regional languages may also be used.
- Simple Religion – Tribal religion includes animism, totemism and nature worship. Society is simple, based on kinship ties, with minimal social stratification.
- Egalitarian Values – Tribal society is largely egalitarian, with decisions taken through tribal chiefs, councils of elders and traditional panchayats.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Reasons for tribal exploitation
- The British wanted to exploit tribal resources, which were rich in minerals and natural resources.
- Contact with missionaries desirous of converting tribals, which in some cases, resulted in identity crisis.
- Entry of specialists like medical professionals, agents and vendors into tribal areas, causing alienation of tribals from their traditional medicine.
- Development of transport and communication in tribal areas, which facilitated the entry of outsiders in the region.
- Displacement of tribal populations from their traditional habitat due to industrial establishments, construction of big dams, highways etc.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Problems faced by the tribal community
- Alienation from Forest Land – Tribals lost control over forest land due to British policies, industrialisation, dams and outsiders like moneylenders and traders.
- Poverty and Indebtedness – Most tribes live below the poverty line, depend on simple occupations and often fall into debt, leading to loss of land.
- Health and Nutrition – Tribals suffer from diseases, poor medical facilities, malnutrition and high infant mortality rates.
- Illiteracy – Lack of schools in tribal areas, language barriers and economic pressure on children lead to high dropout rates.
- Bonded Labour – Though legally banned, bonded labour still exists in some areas due to poverty and lack of stable income.
- Shifting Cultivation – Traditional shifting cultivation causes deforestation and soil erosion and is often discouraged by the government.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: ‘Panchsheel’ Philosophy of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
- Development with Respect for Culture – Tribal development should not destroy their traditional culture and heritage.
- Self-Development – Tribals should develop according to their own genius, without outside imposition.
- Protection of Land Rights – Tribal rights over land and forests must be safeguarded.
- Local Leadership and Limited Intervention – Administration and development work should involve trained tribal people and avoid excessive interference.
- Human-Centred Evaluation – Progress should be judged by improvement in quality of life, not merely by money spent or statistics.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Tribal Development Efforts after Independence
- Government Initiatives – After Independence, tribal development became a priority through Five-Year Plans and special Central and State schemes.
- Financial Assistance – Funds were provided under State Plans, Special Central Assistance, Sectoral Programmes and Institutional Finance for tribal welfare.
- Educational Support – Hostels, educational complexes in low literacy areas (especially for tribal women), scholarships, book banks and coaching facilities were introduced.
- Institutional Measures – Grants were given to Tribal Development Corporations, NGOs, Village Grain Banks, Research and Training programmes and Tribal Advisory Councils (TAC).
- Limited Success – Despite several schemes, many tribal communities still face poverty and backwardness, showing that development efforts have not been fully successful.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definitions: Rural Community
- A.W. Green : “A village community or rural community is a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial radius who share a common way of life”.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: Rural society is one in which there is a low ratio of inhabitants to open land and in which the most important economic activities are the production of food stuffs, fibers and raw materials.
- The Indian rural community may be defined as a group of 32 Sociology Std 12 about 5000 people (Census of India, 2011) depending on agriculture and allied occupations, permanently residing in a geographic area and participating in common socio-economic and cultural activities.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Characteristics of Rural Community
- Community living in villages – Rural people live in villages where most needs are fulfilled locally and there is a strong feeling of togetherness.
- Small Size – Villages are smaller in area and population compared to cities.
- Dominance of agriculture – Agriculture is the main occupation and way of life; many other activities depend on farming.
- Primary Relations – Relationships are close, informal and based on kinship; community spirit (“we-feeling”) is strong.
- Social Homogeneity – People share similar customs, traditions, language and lifestyle; there is strong cooperation.
- Significance of Family – Family (especially joint family earlier) plays a central role in social control and decision-making.
- Dominance of caste system – Village life is deeply influenced by caste hierarchy and religious beliefs, rituals and festivals.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Problems of Indian rural community
- Poverty: A large section of the rural population lives below the poverty line. Small and marginal farmers, labourers and artisans suffer from low income and poor living conditions.
- Illiteracy: Literacy rates in rural areas are lower than in urban areas. Poor infrastructure, inadequate funding and economic pressures lead to school dropouts.
- Traditionalism, Conservatism and Superstitions: Rural society often follows rigid traditional beliefs and customs, leading to resistance to social change and development.
- Caste Influence: Caste hierarchy continues to influence social relations and opportunities, affecting equality and social mobility.
- Farmers’ Suicides: Financial indebtedness, crop failure and agricultural distress have led to an increase in farmers’ suicides in some regions.
- Low Status of Women: Patriarchal values dominate rural life, resulting in gender discrimination, limited opportunities and subordinate status for women.
- Family Disputes: Property disputes and division of land into smaller holdings make agriculture uneconomical and create family conflicts.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Efforts for Rural Development
- After Independence, rural development became a major focus through planned economic programmes and land reforms.
- A.R. Desai identified key changes like shift from subsistence to market economy and use of modern technology in villages.
- The Community Development Programme (1952) and Panchayati Raj (1957) encouraged people’s participation in village development.
- The Integrated Rural Development Programme (1979) aimed at poverty removal and overall rural upliftment.
- Rural areas are increasingly linked with urban areas, leading to mobility, weakening of caste barriers and growth of market economy.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definitions: Urban Community
- Max Weber: ‘Five attributes define an urban community: it must possess (1) a fortification, (2) a market, (3) a law code and court system of its own, (4) an association of urban citizenry creating a sense of municipal corporateness, and (5) sufficient political autonomy for urban citizens to choose the city’s governors’.
- Henri Pirenne: ‘Two characteristics were fundamental to the development of an urban culture: a bourgeoisie, or middle class, that depends on trade for both - wealth and political autonomy from non-urban feudal power holders; and a communal organisation 36 Sociology Std 12 of the urban citizenry that creates the municipal integration necessary to free the city from control by local feudal lords or religious authorities’.
- Merriam-Webster Dictionary: ‘A society that is typical of modern industrial civilisation and heterogeneous in cultural tradition, that emphasises secular values, and that is individualised rather than integrated contrasted with folk society’.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Characteristics of Urban Community
- Heterogeneity – Urban areas consist of diverse groups based on class, caste, occupation, language and religion, leading to a cosmopolitan culture.
- High Density of Population – Cities have a large population concentrated in a small area, making social life more complex and dynamic.
- Different Occupations – Work is specialised and mainly non-agricultural, including trade, commerce, industries and professional services.
- Large-scale Social Mobility – Status is based more on education, occupation and merit rather than birth, allowing upward mobility.
- Secondary Relations – Social interactions are formal, impersonal and based on roles rather than close personal ties.
- Market-based Economy – Urban economy is profit-oriented and dependent on markets, trade, banking and modern financial systems.
- Formal Social Control – Behaviour is regulated by formal institutions like law, police, courts and formal education rather than customs alone.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Major Urban Problems
- Urban Sprawl – Rapid expansion of cities in area and population due to migration; leads to pressure on land and resources.
- Overcrowding – Too many people living in limited space, causing congestion and poor living conditions.
- Housing and Slums – Shortage of houses leads to growth of slums with inadequate facilities.
- Unemployment – High unemployment and underemployment, especially among urban educated youth and migrants.
- Transport – Traffic congestion, overcrowded public transport, and frequent delays.
- Water Shortage – Inadequate water supply and poor drainage systems create health and sanitation issues.
- Urban Crime – Increase in theft, burglary, violence and other crimes due to poverty, unemployment and inequality.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Efforts towards Urban Development
- Urbanisation as Growth Engine: Cities are seen as centres of economic growth and social transformation, contributing nearly 60% of national income.
- Planning by National Commission on Urbanisation (1988): Suggested balanced regional development, proper population distribution, growth of small/medium towns and better urban services.
- Urban Development Programmes: Schemes like UBSP, EIUS, ISDMT, HUDCO, Mega Cities Project and Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme were introduced.
- Recent Government Initiatives: Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT, PM Awas Yojana (Housing for All), HRIDAY, JNNURM, Swachh Bharat Mission and Urban Transport projects.
- Challenges in Implementation: Urban development faces shortage of funds and limited budget allocation, affecting proper planning and service delivery.
