Topics
Solid State
- General Characteristics of Solid State
- Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells - Primitive and Centred Unit Cells
- Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell
- Close Packed Structures of Solids
- Close Packed Structures - Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled
- Packing Efficiency in hcp and ccp Structures
- Efficiency of Packing in Body-centred Cubic Structures
- Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice
- Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
- Imperfections in Solids - Introduction
- Types of Point Defects - Stoichiometric Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Impurity Defects
- Types of Point Defects - Non-stoichiometric Defects
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Conduction of Electricity in Metals
- Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors
- Applications of n-type and p-type Semiconductors
- Properties of Solids: Magnetic Properties
- Band Theory of Metals
- Solid State Numericals
Solutions
- Concept of Solution
- Types of Solutions
- Expressing Concentration of Solutions
- Solubility
- Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
- Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions
- Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions
- Raoult’s Law as a Special Case of Henry’s Law
- Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
- Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions
- Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass
- Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
- Elevation of Boiling Point
- Depression of Freezing Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Reverse Osmosis and Water Purification
- Abnormal Molar Masses
- Overview of Solutions
Electrochemistry
- Concept of Electrochemistry
- Electrochemical Cells
- Galvanic or Voltaic Cell
- Galvanic Cells - Measurement of Electrode Potential
- Nernst Equation
- Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation
- Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs Energy of the Reaction
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
- Measurement of the Conductivity of Ionic Solutions
- Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Concentration
- Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis
- Products of Electrolysis
- Primary Batteries
- Secondary Batteries
- Fuel Cells
- Corrosion of Metals
- The Hydrogen Economy
- Overview of Electrochemistry
Chemical Kinetics
- Concept of Chemical Kinetics
- Rate of Chemical Reaction
- Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction
- Integrated Rate Equations
- Zero Order Reactions
- First Order Reactions
- Half Life Period of a Reaction
- Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction
- Effect of Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction
- Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
- Overview of Chemical Kinetics
d-block and f-block Elements
- Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Position in the Periodic Table - d-block Elements
- Electronic Configurations of the d-block Elements
- Physical Properties of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Variation in Atomic and Ionic Sizes of Transition Metals (d-block)
- Ionisation Enthalpies of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Oxidation States of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Trends in Transition Elements (d-block)
- Chemical Reactivity and Electrode Potentials of Transition Elements (d-Block)
- Magnetic Properties of the Transition Elements (d-block)
- Other Properties of Transition Elements (d-block)
- Important Compounds of Transition Elements
- The Lanthanoids
- Properties of Lanthanoids
- General Characteristics of Lanthanoids
- The Actinoids
- Properties of Actinoids
- General Characteristics of Actinoids
- Applications of d- and f-Block Elements
- Overview of d-block and f-block Elements
Coordination Compounds
- Concept of Coordination Compounds
- Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds
- Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Stereoisomerism
- Structural Isomerism
- Bonding in Coordination Compounds
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
- Importance and Limitations of Valence Bond Theory
- Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
- Limitations of Crystal Field Theory
- Colour in Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Metal Carbonyls
- Importance and Applications of Coordination Compounds
- Overview of Coordination Compounds
Surface Chemistry
- Introduction of Adsorption
- Distinction Between Adsorption and Absorption
- Mechanism of Adsorption
- Types of Adsorption
- Adsorption Isotherms (Freundlich and Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm)
- Adsorption from Solution Phase
- Applications of Adsorption
- Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Shape-selective Catalysis by Zeolites
- Enzyme Catalysis
- Catalysts in Industry
- Colloids
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Dispersions
- Preparation of Colloids
- Purification of Colloidal Solution
- Properties of Colloidal Solutions
- Emulsions
- Colloids Around Us
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
- Occurrence of Metals
- Types of Separation or Concentration of an Ore
- Hydraulic Washing
- Magnetic Separation
- Froth Floatation Method
- Leaching
- Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore
- Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Application of Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
- Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy
- Oxidation Reduction
- Refining of Crude Metals
- Principles and Methods of Extraction - Concentration
- Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron
- General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Numerical
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Concept of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Classification of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nomenclature of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nature of C-X Bond of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloarenes
- Physical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Elimination Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Reaction with Metals
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Nucleophilic Substitution
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Reaction with Metals
- Polyhalogen Compounds
- Overview of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Concept of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Classification of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Nomenclature of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Structures of Functional Groups of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
- Methods of Preparation of Phenols
- Physical Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
- Chemical Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
- Reactions Involving Cleavage of O-H Bond
- Reactions Involving Cleavage of Carbon–Oxygen (C–O) Bond in Alcohols
- Reactions of Phenols
- Commercially Importance Alcohols
- Preparation of Ethers
- Physical Properties of Ethers
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Cleavege of C-O Bonds
- Chemical Reaction of Ethers - Electrophilic Substitution
- Overview of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
P - Block Elements
- Group 15 Elements - The Nitrogen Family
- Dinitrogen
- Ammonia
- Oxides of Nitrogen
- Nitric Acid
- Phosphorus - Allotropic Forms
- Compounds of Phosphorus
- Phosphine
- Phosphorus Halides
- Oxoacids of Phosphorus
- Group 16 Elements - The Oxygen Family
- Dioxygen
- Classification of Oxides
- Simple Oxides
- Ozone
- Sulphur - Allotropic Forms
- Compounds of Sulphur
- Sulphur Dioxide
- Oxoacids of Sulphur
- Sulphuric Acid
- Group 17 Elements - The Halogen Family
- Compounds of Halogens
- Chlorine
- Hydrogen Chloride
- Oxoacids of Halogens
- Interhalogen Compounds
- Group 18 Elements - The Noble gas Family
- P Block Elements
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Concepts of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Structure of Carbonyl Group
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reduction
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Oxidation
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reactions Due to α-hydrogen
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Other Reactions
- Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
- Structure of the Carboxyl group
- Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of O-H Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of C-OH Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving –COOH Group
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
- Uses of Carboxylic Acids
- Overview: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Amines
- Concept of Amines
- Structure of Amines
- Classification of Amines
- Nomenclature of Amines
- Preparation of Amines
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Basic Character of Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Alkylation and Acylation
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Carbylamine Reaction
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Nitrous Acid
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Arylsulphonyl Chloride
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Electrophilic Substitution
- Diazonium Salts
- Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts
- Physical Properties of Diazonium Salts
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Displacement of Nitrogen
- Chemical Reaction of Diazonium Salts - Reactions Involving Retention of Diazo Group
- Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds
- Overview of Amines
Biomolecules
- Concept of Biomolecules
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Carbohydrates
- Classification of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccahrides
- Preparation of Glucose
- Structures of Glucose
- Fructose
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
- Importance of Carbohydrates
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Amino Acids
- Classification of Amino Acids
- Structure of Proteins
- Denaturation of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Vitamins
- Classification of Vitamins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Nucleic Acids
- Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids
- Structure of Nucleic Acids
- Har Gobind Khorana
- DNA Fingerprinting
- Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Hormones
- Overview of Biomolecules
Polymers
- Introduction to Polymers
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Source or Origin
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Structure
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Mode of Polymerisation
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Intermolecular Forces
- Classification of Polymers Based on Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Condensation Polymerisation Or Step Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Copolymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Rubber
- Molecular Mass of Polymers
- Classification of Polymers> Based on Biodegradability
- Polymers of Commercial Importance
- Some Important Polymers
- Polymers Numericals
Chemistry in Everyday Life
- Classification of Drugs
- Drug-target Interaction - Enzymes as Drug Targets
- Drug-target Interaction - Receptors as Drug Targets
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antacids
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antihistamines
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Neurologically Active Drugs
- Antimicrobials
- Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs - Antifertility Drugs
- Chemicals in Food - Artificial Sweetening Agents and Food Preservatives
- Cleansing Agents
- Chemistry in Everyday Life Numericals
Estimated time: 6 minutes
CBSE: Class 12
Key Points: Ideal and Non-ideal solution:
For ideal solution: ΔHmix = 0, ΔVmix = 0
For non-ideal solution: ΔHmix ≠ 0, ΔVmix ≠ 0
- Positive deviation: A-B interaction < A-A or B-B interactions
- Negative deviation: A-B interaction > A-A or B-B interactions
Plots for Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions: Formation of ideal solutions can also be represented graphically.
Formation of non-ideal solutions with negative deviation can be represented as:
Azeotropic Mixtures:
A type of liquid mixture having a definite composition and boiling like a pure liquid (i.e., constant boiling mixture).
| Type | Deviation | Example | Boiling Point |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Boiling Azeotrope | Positive deviation | 95.37% (w/w) ethanol + water | Less than either component |
| Maximum Boiling Azeotrope | Negative deviation | 68% (w/w) HNO₃; 20.3% HCl | More than either component |
Shaalaa.com | Solutions part 20 (Non ideal solution: Positive and negative deviations)
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Series: Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions
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