Overview of The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Utopian is a vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.

A plebiscite is a direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

• In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu’s painting represented his dream of a world made up of democratic and free nations.
• During the French Revolution (1789), Liberty was personified as a female figure symbolising freedom and equal rights.
• In the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a powerful force in Europe.
• In the nineteenth century, nation-states were formed when people developed a common identity, history, and sense of belonging.
• In 1882, Ernst Renan explained that a nation is based on shared memories, sacrifices, and a common will.

• The French Revolution of 1789 marked the beginning of modern nationalism in France.
• Power was transferred from the absolute monarch to the people, who came to form the nation.
• National symbols like the tricolour flag and the National Assembly helped unite the people.
• A centralised system introduced uniform laws and administration across France.
• French was promoted as the common national language to strengthen unity.
• Napoleon introduced reforms such as the Napoleonic Code of 1804, which ensured equality before the law.
• French rule later faced opposition because of heavy taxation, censorship, and forced conscription.

• In the mid-eighteenth century, Europe did not have modern nation-states as we know them today.
• In the eighteenth century, Germany and Italy were divided into many small kingdoms and states.
• During the eighteenth century, Central and Eastern Europe were ruled by autocratic, multi-national empires.
• The Habsburg Empire in the eighteenth century included people of different languages, cultures, and ethnic groups.
• In the nineteenth century, nationalism grew and led to nation-states such as Italy (1859–1870) and Germany (1866–1871).

• The landed aristocracy was the dominant social and political class in Europe.
• Most of the population consisted of peasants, including tenants and serfs.
• Western Europe had small landowners, while Central and Eastern Europe had large estates.
• Industrialisation created new working and middle classes.
• The educated middle class promoted ideas of nationalism and unity.

• Liberal nationalism supported individual freedom and equality before the law.
• Liberals demanded constitutions and representative governments.
• Voting rights were limited to property-owning men, not all citizens.
• Liberalism supported free markets and free trade.
• The Zollverein of 1834 promoted economic unity and nationalism.

Conservatism is a political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change.

• After 1815, European governments followed conservatism and supported the monarchy and traditional institutions.
• Conservatives believed that modernisation after 1815 could strengthen monarchies and state power.
• In 1815, the Congress of Vienna was held under the Duke Metternich to restore the old order in Europe.
• The Treaty of Vienna (1815) restored monarchies like the Bourbon dynasty in France.
• Conservative governments after 1815 were autocratic and imposed strict censorship.
• Even after 1815, liberals were inspired by the French Revolution and demanded freedom of the press.

• After 1815, liberalism and nationalism were linked with revolutions in Europe.
• The revolutions were led by the educated middle class.
• In July 1830, the Bourbon monarchy in France was overthrown.
• The 1830 Revolution led to Belgium becoming independent.
• Greece became independent after the Treaty of Constantinople (1832).

 Feminist is awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the genders.

Ideology is a system of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.

• In 1848, the educated middle classes led liberal revolutions across Europe.
• In France (1848), a republic with universal male suffrage was established.
• Liberals demanded constitutions, civil rights, and national unification.
• The Frankfurt Parliament (18 May 1848) tried but failed to unify Germany.
• Women participated actively but were denied political rights.
• After 1848, serfdom was abolished, and Hungary gained autonomy in 1867.

• After 1848, nationalism in Europe became linked with conservatism and state power rather than democracy.
• The liberal attempt to unify Germany in 1848 failed due to opposition from the monarchy, army, and Prussian landowners (Junkers).
• Prussia took leadership of German unification under Otto von Bismarck.
• German unification was achieved through three wars (1864–1871) with Denmark, Austria, and France.
• In January 1871, William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles, completing unification.

• In the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was divided into several states ruled by different dynasties and foreign powers.
• Giuseppe Mazzini tried to unify Italy through revolutionary movements in 1831 and 1848, but these attempts failed.
• The task of unification was taken up by Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II.
• Count Cavour used diplomacy and war to defeat Austria in 1859, with support from France.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of a united Italy.

• Britain became a nation-state through a long, gradual process, not through a sudden revolution.
• Before the eighteenth century, people identified themselves as English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish, not British.
• The English Parliament gained power in 1688 and played a major role in building the British nation-state.
• The Act of Union (1707) united England and Scotland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
• Scottish and Irish cultures were suppressed, and the English language and culture were promoted as national symbols.
• After the failed Irish revolt of 1798, Ireland was merged with Britain in 1801, forming the United Kingdom.

• In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, nations were represented as female figures to give a human form to the idea of the nation.
• These female figures were allegories, not real women, symbolising abstract ideas like unity and freedom.
• During the French Revolution, female allegories were used to represent Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
• Marianne became the national allegory of France, symbolising the people’s nation and national unity.
• Germania represented the German nation and wore a crown of oak leaves, symbolising heroism.

• By the late nineteenth century, nationalism lost its liberal and democratic character and became aggressive.
• Nationalist groups became intolerant and war-oriented, often manipulated by powerful European states.
• The Balkans became the most serious centre of nationalist tension after 1871.
• Balkan peoples used nationalism and history to demand independence from the Ottoman Empire.
• Rivalry among European powers like Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary increased conflicts in the Balkans.
• Nationalism combined with imperialism led to the First World War in 1914 and inspired anti-imperial movements worldwide.