Topics
The Language of Chemistry
- Matter (Substance)
- Molecules
- Pure Substances
- Elements
- Classification of Molecules
- Symbols Used to Represent Atoms of Different Elements
- Periodic Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
- Variable Valency
- Chemical Formula or Molecular Formula
- Ions (Radicals) and Its Types
- Chemical Formula or Molecular Formula
- Naming Chemical Compounds
- Shells and Valency
- Chemical Equations
- Balancing Chemical Equation
- Atomic Mass
- Molecular Mass
- Percentage Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formula
- Empirical Formula of a Compound
- Hydrogen
Chemical Changes and Reactions
- Chemical Reaction
- Conditions Necessary for Chemical Reactions
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Combination Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Decomposition Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Single Displacement Reaction
- Types of Chemical Reactions > Double Displacement Reaction
- Endothermic and Exothermic Processes
Water
- Water: Our Lifeline
- Physical Properties of Water
- Chemical Properties of Water
- Water - a Universal Solvent
- Solutions as 'Mixtures' of Solids in Water
- Composition of a Solution
- Types of Solutions
- Saturated Solutions
- Concentration of a Solution
- Solubility
- Crystals and Crystallisation
- Hydrated and Anhydrous Substances
- Efflorescence, Hygroscopic, and Deliquescence Substances
- Drying and Dehydrous Substances
- Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water
- Causes of Hardness
- Advantage and Disadvantage of Hard Water
- Removal of Hardness of Water
- Salts
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding
- Concept of Chemical Bonding
- History of Atom
- Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Elements
- Atoms: Building Blocks of Matter
- Discovery of Charged Particles in Matter
- Electrons (e)
- Protons (p)
- Nucleus
- Neutrons (n)
- J. J. Thomson’s Atomic Model
- Lord Rutherford’s Atomic model
- Neils Bohr’s Model of an Atom
- Structure of the Atom and Nucleus
- Atomic Number (Z), Mass Number (A), and Number of Neutrons (n)
- Atomic Mass
- Electronic Configuration of Atom
- Periodic Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
- Reason for Chemical Activity of an Atom
- Isotopes
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
- The Covalent Bond
- Types of Covalent Bonds
- Formation of Covalent Bond
The Periodic Table
- Classification of Elements
- The Modern Periodic Table
- Insights into Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
- Modern Periodic Law
- Structure of the Modern Periodic Table
- Advantage and Disadvantage of Modern Periodic Table
- Periods and Electronic Configuration
- Shells (Orbits)
- Periodic Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
- Properties of Elements
- Atomic Size
- Metallic and Non-metallic Characters
- Study of Specific Groups in Periodic Table
- Group I (Alkali Metals)
- Group II (Alkaline Earth Metals)
- Gradation in Halogen Family
- Group Zero or 18 Group (Noble Gases)
- Uses of Periodic Table
- Earth and Elements
Study of the First Element - Hydrogen
- Position of Hydrogen in Periodic Table
- Similarities Between Hydrogen and Alkali Metals
- Similarities Between Hydrogen and Halogens
- Hydrogen
- Preparation of Hydrogen
- Application of Activity Series in the Preparation of Hydrogen
- Recognition and Identification of Gases
- Manufacture of Hydrogen
- Physical Properties of Hydrogen
- Chemical Properties of Hydrogen
- Uses of Hydrogen
- Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds > Oxidation
Study of Gas Laws
- Gases and Its Characteristics
- Molecular Motion : Relationship of Temperature, Pressure and Volume
- Gas Laws
- Pressure and Volume Relationship or Bolye's Law
- Temperature - Volume Relationship or Charles's Law
- Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature
- The Temperature and a Thermometer
- Scales of Thermometers
- Gas Equation
- Standard Temperature Pressure (S.T.P.)
- The Effect of Moisture and Pressure
Atmospheric Pollution
- Atmospheric Pollution
- Gaseous Pollutants and Their Effects
- Acid Rain
- Green House Effect
- Advantage of Green House Effect
- Global Warming
- Preventive Measures of Global Warming
- Ozone
- Ozone Layer Depletion
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
- Differences Between Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
- Types of Mixtures
- Mixture
- Separation of Mixtures
- Use of Solvent and Filtration
- Concept of Evaporation
- Simple Distillation Method
- Simple Distillation Method
- Chromatography Method
- Centrifugation Method
- Solvent Extraction (Using a Separating Funnel Method)
Matter and Its Composition: Law of Conservation of Mass
- Change of State
- Inter-particle Space and Interparticle Attraction and Collision
- Law of Conservation of Mass
Practical Work
- Recognition and Identification of Gases
- Action of Heat
- Identifying Substances by Colour, Smell, State & Heat Effect
- Distinction between Colourless Solutions of Dilute Acids and Alkalis
- Distinguish between Black Copper Oxide and Black Manganese Dioxide
- Flame Test
- Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water
- Simple Experiments Based on Hard Water and Soft Water
- Water Pollution
- Water Quality
- The pH Scale
- Prevention and Control of Water Pollution
- Centrifugation and Its Working
- Principle and Applications of Centrifugation
- Experiment
Centrifugation and Its Working:
Centrifugation is the process of separation of insoluble materials from a liquid where normal filtration does not work well. The method of separating denser particles and lighter particles from a mixture by using a centrifuging machine is called centrifugation.
Centrifuge
The centrifugation is based on the size, shape, and density of the particles, the viscosity of the medium, and the speed of rotation. The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly. The apparatus used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge. This method is useful in case the suspended particles in a liquid are too small to be retained by filter paper.
Working:
- In a centrifuge machine, test tubes containing the mixture are placed at the rim of a rotating disc. When the disc spins at high speed, a force pushes the solid particles towards the bottom of the test tubes.
- This separates the solids from the liquid efficiently. For example, blood plasma can be separated from blood cells, and cream can be separated from milk using centrifugation.
- This method is useful for separating solid-liquid mixtures where regular filtration isn’t effective.
Principle and Applications of Centrifugation:
When a mixture is rotated very fast, the denser particles are forced to go to the bottom of the centrifuge and the lighter particles stay at the top.
Applications:
- Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
- Used in dairy and home to separate butter from cream.
- Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
Experiment
1. Aim: To separate cream from milk with the help of centrifugation
2. Requirements: Full-cream milk, test tube, centrifuging machine/milk churner
3. Principle: The components of a mixture may have different densities. When such a mixture is shaken vigorously, lighter particles separate from the rest and float on the surface.
4. Procedure
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Take some full-cream milk in a test tube.
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Centrifuge it by using a centrifuging machine for two minutes.
5. Observation: Skimmed milk is separated from cream, which floats at the top.
6. Inference/Result: The cream is lighter than the rest of the mixture. As a result, when we shake milk vigorously, it separates and starts floating on the surface.
