Topics
Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
- Totalitarian and Authoritarian States
- Liberal Democratic State
- Unitary and Federal States
- Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government (U.K. and U.S.A.)
- Decentralisation in India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
Constitution and Government
Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
- Meaning of Constitution
- Kinds of Constitutions - Written and Unwritten, Rigid and Flexible, Enacted and Evolved
- Amending Procedures
- Conventions - Meaning and Examples with Reference to U.K., U.S.A. and India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
Indian Democracy
Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
- Methods of Election - Direct and Indirect
- Constituency - Single Member and Multi-member
- Universal Adult Franchise
- First Past the Post System
- Minority Representation
- Political Parties
- Kinds of Party System - Single Party, Bi-party, Multi-party System
- Overview of Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
Constitution
Franchise and Representation
Organs of Government: The Legislature
Organs of Government: The Executive
Organs of Government: The Judiciary
Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
- Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures
- Legislative Functions
- The Legislature in India and U.S.A.
- Composition and Powers of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
- Comparison of the Rajya Sabha and the U.S. Senate
- Lok Sabha with the U.S. House of Representatives
- Overview of Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
Fundamental Rights
- What is an Executive
- Functions of Executive
- Discretionary Powers of the President
- Civil Service
- Difference Between the Political Executive and the Permanent Executive
- Political Executive in India and U.S.A. - a Comparative Study
- Powers and Functions of Executive Heads of U.S.A. (President)
- Changing Role of the Indian Prime Minister in the Coalition Era (1996 Onwards) - with Reference to Increasing Role of Regional Political Parties
- Overview of Fundamental Rights
Directive Principles of State Policy
- Introduction and Composition of Judiciary
- Functions of Judiciary
- Conditions of Independence of Judiciary
- Judiciary in India and U.S.A
- Judicial Review
- Principles and Critical Evaluation with Special Reference to U.S.A. and India
- Judicial Activism
- Judicial Restraint
- The Supreme Court
- Overview of Directive Principles of State Policy
Local Self-Government
Democracy in India: Perspective of Challenges Faced
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Concept of Unitary State
- A Unitary State is one in which all powers are concentrated in a single central government.
- Local governments exist and function only as per the will of the central government.
- The system has a single legislature, single executive and single judiciary for the whole country.
- Powers exercised by local governments are delegated by the central government and can be altered or withdrawn.
- Since authority is unified and centrally controlled, it is also called a Unitary Government.
CISCE: Class 12
Definition: Unitary State
- "The habitual exercise of supreme legislative authority by one central power." - Dicey
- "Unitary Government (state) is one in which all the authority and powers are lodged in a single centre whose will and authority are largely omnipotent over the whole area." - Herman Finer
- "Where the whole power of government is conferred by the constitution upon a single central organ or organs, from which the local governments derive whatever authority or autonomy they possess and indeed their very existence, we have a system of Unitary Government." - Garner
- "A Unitary State is one organised under a single central government, that is to say, whatever powers are possessed by the various districts within the area administered as a whole by the central government are held at the discretion of that government and the central power is supreme over the whole without any restriction imposed by any law granting special power to its parts." - C.F. Strong
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Features/Nature of Unitary State
- A Single Central all-powerful Government.
- Local Governments exist at the will of the Central Government.
- Constitution can be Written or Unwritten.
- Flexibility of the Constitution and Administration.
- Single Uniform Administration for the Entire Country.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Concept of Federal State
- A federal state has one central government and several state or provincial governments working together.
- The constitution divides powers between the central and state governments.
- Each level of government is autonomous within its own sphere of authority.
- The central government works for the entire country, while state governments govern their respective states.
- Large countries like USA, India, Canada, Australia, Pakistan, and Russia follow the federal system.
- A federal state can be formed either by coming together of states or by holding together of a large country.
CISCE: Class 12
Definition: Federal State
- "Federal government is a convention (agreement) by which several similar and smaller states agree to become members of a larger one." - Montesquieu
- “Federation as an association of states that form a new one." - Hamilton
- "In it the powers of the government are divided between the government for the whole country and governments for parts of the country in such a way that each government is legally independent within its own sphere." "It is a method of dividing powers so that the general (central) and regional governments each working within a sphere coordinate and independent." - K.C. Wheare writes
- "Federation is a system in which there is a central authority that represents the whole and acts on behalf of the whole in external affairs and in such internal affairs as are held to be of common interest; and in which there are also provincial authorities with powers of legislation and administration within the spheres allotted to them by the constitution." - Sir Herbert Samuel
- "Federal government can be defined as a system of central and local governments combined under a common sovereignty, both the central and local governments being supreme within definite spheres, marked out for them by the general constitution or by the act of parliament which creates the system." - Garner
- “Federation as a state in which a number of coordinate states unite for certain common purposes. In it, the powers of the central or federal authority are limited by certain powers secured to the units which have unified for common purpose. This being the case, there must be some authority which determines the distribution. This authority is the constitution itself." - C.F. Strong
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Features of Federal State
- A Federal State has a two Tier Government.
- Division of Powers between the Centre and States.
- Rigid Constitution.
- Supremacy of the Federal Constitution.
- Equality of all Federating States.
- Bicameral Legislature.
- Dual Administration.
CISCE: Class 12
Difference Between Unitary States and Federal States
| Basis of Comparison | Unitary States | Federal States |
|---|---|---|
| Nature of Government | One strong central government | Central government with state governments |
| Division of Powers | No division of powers | Powers divided by the Constitution |
| Administration | Single administration for whole country | Dual administration (centre and states) |
| Laws | One set of laws for all citizens | Separate the central and state laws |
| Constitution | May be written or unwritten | A written constitution is essential |
| Flexibility | Constitution is flexible | Constitution is rigid |
| Citizenship & Judiciary | Single citizenship and judiciary | Dual citizenship and dual judiciary |
| Examples | UK, France, Japan | USA, India, Canada, Australia |
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Example of a Unitary State> UK as a Unitary State
- UK has a single central government holding all powers.
- British Parliament’s laws apply to the entire country.
- Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
- Local governments function under powers granted by the centre.
- There is no division of powers, making the UK a true Unitary State.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Features of the UK as a Unitary State
- The single central government exercises all legislative, executive and judicial powers.
- The single executive, legislature and judiciary operate for the whole country.
- Local governments derive powers from the central government and function under it.
- No division of powers; all authority rests with the British Government.
- Uniform laws and administration apply throughout the United Kingdom.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Example of a Unitary State> USA as a Federal State
- The USA is a federation of 50 states, originally formed by 13 independent states after the War of Independence.
- The federal system was adopted to secure strong unity while preserving the individual identity and autonomy of states.
- Federalism in the USA was a political necessity, not a theoretical idea (as noted by Dr. O. P. Goyal).
- Powers are divided between the Federal Government and the State Governments by a written and rigid Constitution.
- The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the Constitution and settles disputes between the Centre and the States.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Features of the USA as a Federal State
- Division of Powers under the US Constitution.
- Dual Administration.
- Written Constitution.
- Rigid Constitution.
- Independent and Powerful Judiciary.
- Dual Judicial System.
- System of Dual Citizenship.
