Definitions [4]
H. H. Risley: “Caste is collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine; professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”
George Lundberg: “A caste is merely a rigid social class into which members are born and from which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty.”
S. V. Ketkar: “A caste is a group having two characteristics- i) membership is confined to those who are born of members and include all persons so born, ii) the membership is forbidden by an inexorable social law to men outside the group.”
Ralph Linton's definition:
A tribe is a group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in culture, frequent contacts, and a certain community of interests.
Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India refers to ‘Scheduled Tribes’ as those communities that are protected under a schedule, as specified in Article 342 of the Constitution.
As per this, Scheduled Tribes are groups or communities that have been declared by the President of India as possessing the following characteristics:
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Primitive traits
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Geographic isolation
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Distinct culture
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Shy of contact with the larger community
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Economic backwardness
Caste is a social institution uniquely associated with the Indian sub-continent in which individuals are born into hereditary groups with fixed social status and rules that govern marriage, occupation, food, and social interaction.
Key Points
- Birth-Based Membership: Caste is determined by birth; a person is born into a caste and cannot choose or change it.
- Endogamy (Marriage Within the Group): Marriage is restricted within the same caste group; people must marry only among members of their own caste.
- Rules on Food and Sharing: Caste includes strict rules about what kinds of food may or may not be eaten and who may share food with whom.
- Hierarchy and Status: Castes are arranged in a hierarchical order of rank and status; each caste has a specified place in the social ladder.
- Segmental Organisation (Sub-Castes): Castes are divided further into many sub-castes, and each may consist of additional subdivisions, forming a complex hierarchical structure.
- The present form of caste in India was strongly shaped during the colonial period (c. 1800–1947) and further changed in post-Independence India.
- Many scholars argue that modern understandings of caste are influenced more by colonial interventions than by ancient Indian tradition.
- British administrators conducted surveys, ethnographic studies, and censuses to understand caste for effective governance.
- The Census of 1901, under Herbert Risley, officially recorded caste hierarchy and social ranking, which made caste identities more rigid and fixed.
- Colonial policies also led to the official classification of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, bringing state intervention into caste relations.
- Independence in 1947 brought change, but caste continued to shape social and political life.
- Leaders like Gandhi and Ambedkar opposed untouchability, though broader caste inequalities persisted.
- The Constitution abolished untouchability and ensured equality, but major economic reforms to end caste inequality were limited.
- Reservations for SCs and STs became the key measure to address caste disadvantage.
- Urbanisation, industrialisation, and education reduced some caste practices, yet caste remains strong in marriage and social relations.
- Caste plays a major role in democratic politics, influencing voting and the rise of dominant castes.
- Today, caste is less visible for upper castes but remains significant for lower castes due to discrimination and access to state benefits.
- Tribal societies are classified on the basis of permanent traits and acquired traits.
- Permanent traits include region, language, physical characteristics, and ecological habitat.
- About 85% of India’s tribal population is concentrated in Middle India, while the North-Eastern states have the highest tribal share in their population.
- Tribes are classified linguistically into Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, and Tibeto-Burman language groups.
- In terms of size, tribes vary widely, from very small groups to large tribes like Gonds, Santhals, Bhils, and Mundas.
- Acquired traits are based mainly on mode of livelihood and degree of assimilation into Hindu society.
- Tribes are also classified by their attitude towards Hindu society, ranging from those assimilated into Hinduism to those resisting it.
- In the 1960s, scholars debated whether tribes were part of a continuum with caste society or a completely different type of community.
- Those supporting the continuum view argued that tribes were less stratified peasant communities, not fundamentally different from castes.
- Opponents claimed tribes were distinct because they lacked beliefs in purity and pollution, which are central to caste.
- By the 1970s, most definitions of tribe were found to be theoretically weak, as tribes did not fit fixed criteria like isolation or livelihood.
- Many tribes have changed over time, shifting from hunting-gathering to settled agriculture or specialised occupations.
- Tribes have been absorbed into Hindu society through processes like Sanskritisation and acculturation.
- Scholars argue that tribes are not “primitive” but are historically shaped by colonialism, capitalism, and state contact.
|
Basis |
National Development |
Tribal Development |
|
Focus |
Large dams, factories, mining, industries |
Protection of tribal livelihoods and culture |
|
Impact on Land |
Displacement due to mining and projects |
Loss of land and dispossession of communities |
|
Use of Forests |
Commercial exploitation of forests |
Forests as source of livelihood and survival |
|
Migration |
In-migration of non-tribals into tribal areas |
Marginalisation and decline in tribal population |
|
Outcome |
Benefits mainly the mainstream population |
Tribes bear disproportionate social and economic costs |
- Tribal identity today is shaped more by interaction with the mainstream than by ancient or primordial traditions.
- Forced incorporation into mainstream society has led many tribes to define their identity through resistance and opposition.
- The creation of new tribal states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh shows political assertion but continuing social challenges.
- An educated tribal middle class is emerging, especially in the North-East, influencing new forms of tribal identity.
- Contemporary tribal movements focus on control over land and forests and the assertion of ethnic-cultural identity.
- Family is a primary social institution into which individuals are born and where they spend a major part of their lives.
- Families can be nuclear or extended, and may be male-headed or female-headed.
- The line of descent in families can be patrilineal or matrilineal.
- Family structure is closely linked to economic, political, cultural, and social changes in society.
- Changes such as migration, urbanisation, choice in marriage, and social movements have transformed family and kinship patterns.
- A nuclear family consists of one set of parents and their children.
- An extended (joint) family includes more than one couple and often more than two generations living together.
- An extended family may consist of brothers with their families or elderly parents living with sons and grandchildren.
- The extended family has been commonly associated with Indian society, but it was not always the dominant family form everywhere.
- The term “joint family” is not an original Indian concept and is influenced by the English idea of family, as noted by I.P. Desai.
- A nuclear family consists of one set of parents and their children.
- An extended (joint) family includes more than one couple and often more than two generations living together.
- An extended family may consist of brothers with their families or elderly parents living with sons and grandchildren.
- The extended family has been commonly associated with Indian society, but it was not always the dominant family form everywhere.
- The term “joint family” is not an original Indian concept and is influenced by the English idea of family, as noted by I.P. Desai.
Important Questions [7]
- Which of the following makes dominant caste dominant?
- Castes also involve sub-divisions within themselves, i.e. Castes almost always have subcastes and sometimes sub- castes may also have sub-sub-castes. This is referred to as a ______.
- Which of the following is true for caste system? Hierarchy Achieved status Segmental division
- Assertion (A): Caste groups are endogamous, i.e. marriage is restricted to members of the group. Reason (R): Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage.
- Which term is applicable to foreigners, slaves and conquered people?
- Identify the two sets of principles used to understand the caste system. Define any one set.
- Very often family is a site of bitter conflicts. Give two reasons to justify the statement.
