Revision: Indian Economic Development Economics ISC (Commerce) Class 11 CISCE

Viticulture is grape cultivation which is speciality of the Mediterranean region.

It is the type of farming where farmers specialize in and grow vegetables only. The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance a truck can cover overnight.

Factory farming is a modern development in the industrial regions of West Europe where livestock especially poultry and cattle rearing is done installs and pens and fed on manufactured feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases.

Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

• In 1987, the Brundtland Commission cited the definition of sustainability.
  "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs."
• “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
                  -World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987-
• “The alternative approach (to sustainable development) is to focus on natural capital assets and suggest that they should not decline through time.”
                                                                           -Pearce, Markandya and Barbier, 1989-

\[Per Capita Income=\frac{NationalIncome}{Population}\]

Under British rule, India remained a predominantly agrarian economy, but agriculture was stagnant and peasants were highly exploited.​

• Around 85% of the population lived in villages and depended on agriculture, yet productivity stayed low; output rose mainly by expanding cultivated area, not by better yields.​
• Land revenue systems, especially zamindari in Bengal Presidency, diverted surplus to zamindars who only collected rent and rarely invested in land or farmers, causing misery and social tension.​
• Low technology, poor irrigation, negligible fertiliser use, and lack of investment in terracing, flood control and drainage further depressed productivity.​
• Commercialisation led some farmers to shift from food crops to cash crops for British industries, but most small tenants and sharecroppers lacked resources or incentives, so their economic condition did not improve.​

• British policies deliberately deindustrialised India, destroying handicraft industries and making India mainly export raw materials and import cheap British manufactures.​
• Modern industry (cotton and jute mills, later iron and steel like TISCO, and a few sugar, cement, paper units) grew slowly, without a strong capital goods base, and the public sector was limited to railways, power, ports and communications.​

• ​Govt aimed at growth with equity via land reforms + Green Revolution.
• Land reforms: removed zamindars, gave land to tillers; land ceiling planned but weakly implemented, real success mainly in Kerala, West Bengal.
• Green Revolution: HYV seeds + fertilisers + irrigation → big rise in wheat/rice, richer states first, later spread → self-sufficiency in food grains and more marketed surplus.
• Subsidies (water, power, fertilisers): helped small farmers use new tech but caused waste, environmental damage, and burden on govt, so there is debate on reforming them.
• 1950–1990 problem: agri share in GDP fell, but most people still in agriculture because industry and services did not absorb extra workers → seen as policy failure.

• India needed industrialisation after independence for stable jobs and modernisation.
• Government led industry because private sector was weak and policy was socialist.
• IPR 1956: key industries with government; others with private but under control.
• Licensing to start/expand industries and promote backward regions.
• Small-scale industries: labour-intensive, help rural jobs; given protection and concessions.

• Rural credit funds farm inputs and family needs.
• Earlier, farmers relied on moneylenders; now banks, RRBs, cooperatives, and NABARD provide loans.
• SHGs and microcredit promote savings and empower women.
• Issues: loan defaults, weak deposit culture, and misuse of funds.
• Jan-Dhan Yojana improved financial inclusion with zero-balance accounts and direct benefits.

• Move labour from crops to allied activities like dairy, poultry, fisheries and horticulture to stabilise incomes.​
• Promote non-farm work such as food processing, crafts, tourism, beekeeping and IT-enabled services in rural areas.​
• These activities especially support small farmers and women, and make rural livelihoods more sustainable.​

• Government expenditure on education rose from 7.92% (1952) to 16.54% (2020) of total expenditure, and from 0.64% to 4.47% of GDP, though still below the recommended 6%.
• Elementary education takes the largest share, but per-student spending is highest in higher/tertiary education.
• Spending varies widely across states — from ₹96,968 in Sikkim to ₹10,710 in Bihar (2020–21).
• The Education Commission (1964–66) and Tapas Majumdar Committee (1999) emphasized higher investment; the Right to Education Act (2009) made schooling free and compulsory for ages 6–14.
• India also levies a 2% education cess to fund elementary education.
• Educational achievements have improved: adult literacy, primary completion, and youth literacy have risen substantially for both males and females since 1990.

• India’s unemployment is structurally and cyclically driven, with youth at the highest risk.
• Unemployment is measured by hours worked, with underemployment also common.
• Solutions include focused skill development, industrial growth, and targeted government schemes.

Sustainable development means improving life today without reducing the ability of future generations to meet their needs.​

• It links needs with fairness in resource use, especially for the poor (food, jobs, health, education, water, energy, housing).​
• Environment and economy must stay within nature’s carrying capacity: use renewables no faster than they regenerate and gradually replace non‑renewables with sustainable alternatives.​