- Span of Attention – It is the number of stimuli a person can focus on at one time (usually 7–8 items). It is affected by age, intelligence, and practice.
- Distraction of Attention – Attention shifts from one stimulus to another due to external (noise, movement) or internal factors (illness, lack of interest).
- Division of Attention – True division is not possible; one task is done mechanically while attention is focused on the other.
- Fluctuation of Attention – Attention naturally shifts back and forth between stimuli over time, especially due to fatigue or low interest.
Definitions [7]
Definition: Attention
- According to Guildford, "attention is the process of focusing on one or few objects, persons or situations from among many from the field of awareness."
- According to Norman Munn, "attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the center of awareness out of many stimuli present."
Definition: Perception
Perception can be defined as “the process of assigning meaning to the information received about the environment based on past experiences.”
Definition: Thinking
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involve manipulation of information, problem solving, reasoning as well as decision making.
Definition: Schema
A schema is “an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them."
Definition: Mental Representation
Mental representation is “the mental imagery of a thing that is not currently physically available to the senses.”
Definition: Concept
Concept is "an internal representation which the brain uses to denote certain classes of things in the world".
Definition: Learning
Learning can be defined as “a relatively permanent change in the behaviour that occurs due to experience or practice.”
Key Points
Key Points: Concept of Cognitive Processes
- Cognitive processes are higher-level brain functions that help us understand and interact with the world.
- These processes are studied in the branch of psychology called cognitive psychology.
- Examples include sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, and forgetting.
- Higher mental processes like thinking, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making are also cognitive processes.
Key Points: Concept of Attention
- Attention is a selective mental process in which we focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
- It involves bringing a few stimuli into the centre of awareness from many available stimuli.
- Objective factors affecting attention include intensity, size, repetition, and movement of the stimulus.
- Subjective factors affecting attention include interest, motives, attitudes, and mindset.
Key Points: Aspects of Attention
Key Points: Concept of Perception
- Perception is the process of interpreting and giving meaning to sensory information.
- It involves sensation + past experience to understand a stimulus.
- Sensation occurs first, followed by attention and then interpretation by the brain.
- Past experience plays an important role in accurate perception.
- Without relevant past experience, we can sense a stimulus but may not understand its meaning.
Key Points: Perception Phenomena> Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
- Top-down processing occurs when perception is influenced by past experience, knowledge, and context.
- In top-down processing, the brain uses background information to interpret a stimulus.
- Bottom-up processing occurs when perception is based only on sensory input without the influence of context.
- In bottom-up processing, perception begins with the stimulus and moves upward to the brain for interpretation.
- Thus, perception can be influenced either by context (top-down) or purely by sensory data (bottom-up).
Key Points: Perception Phenomena> Laws of Perceptual Organization
- The laws of perceptual organisation were proposed by Max Wertheimer (1923) to explain how the brain organises sensations into meaningful patterns.
- Law of Proximity – Stimuli that are close to each other are perceived as a group.
- Law of Similarity – Stimuli that are similar in shape, size, or colour are perceived together.
- Law of Continuity – We tend to perceive stimuli as continuous and smooth rather than broken or separate.
- Law of Closure – We tend to fill in missing parts and perceive incomplete figures as complete.
- These laws show that perception organises stimuli into a meaningful whole.
Key Points: Concept of Thinking
- Thinking is a mental activity that involves the manipulation of information, problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making.
- Mental representation is an internal image or idea of something not physically present.
- A concept is a mental category that represents a class of similar objects or ideas.
- A schema is an organised framework of related concepts stored in memory.
- Language is a system of symbols that helps represent and express thoughts.
Key Points: Types of Thinking
- Thinking includes different types such as problem solving and creative thinking.
- Problem solving involves four steps: defining the problem, generating alternatives, selecting the best solution, and implementing and evaluating it.
- Correct problem definition and reasoning are essential for effective problem solving.
- Creative thinking is the ability to produce new and original ideas or solutions.
- The first stage of creativity is Preparation, where information is gathered and the problem is understood.
- The second and third stages are Incubation (unconscious processing) and Illumination (sudden insight or “Aha” moment).
- The final stage is Verification, where the solution is tested and refined.
Key Points: Concept of Learning
- Learning is a process that includes acquiring knowledge, skills, and behaviours in different areas of life.
- Learning involves a relatively permanent change in behaviour, not a temporary change.
- Temporary changes (e.g., due to alcohol or mood) are not considered learning.
- Learning occurs through practice and experience.
- Therefore, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience or practice.
Key Points: Processes of Learning
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) – Learning occurs by forming an association between two stimuli (e.g., bell and food).
- Operant Conditioning (Skinner) – Learning occurs through consequences; behaviour is strengthened by rewards and weakened by punishment.
- In operant conditioning, behaviour is repeated if it leads to positive consequences and avoided if it leads to negative consequences.
- Cognitive Learning (Tolman) – Learning can occur through mental processes, such as forming mental maps, even without reinforcement.
- Assimilation and Accommodation (Piaget) – Learning occurs by modifying existing concepts based on new experiences.
- Observational Learning (Bandura) – Learning takes place by observing and imitating others’ behaviour.
- Thus, learning can occur through associations, consequences, mental processes, concept formation, and observation.
Important Questions [19]
- Bringing objects, persons or situations from the field of awareness into the center of awareness is called attention.
- Ivan Pavlov is known for explaining learning by ______.
- Explain the following concept in 25 to 30 words: Span of attention
- Write a short note on the following in 50 to 60 words: Division of attention
- Write answers to the following question based on example only in a word:
- Write an answer to the following question based on an example only in a word: Saloni can easily pay attention to 7 to 8 stimuli at a glance. She can also remember
- Write answers to the following questions based on the examples with only one word: Sunita's concentration in her studies was interrupted by the songs on the radio played loudly by the neighbours.
- Explain the following concept in 25 to 30 words: Perception
- Answer the following questions with the help of the given points: Explain the stages of problem-solving. Points: Defining problem Generating alternative solutions Selecting solution
- A musician came up with an idea of a tune of a song like a flash of Light. It is called illumination in creative thinking.
- Explain the following concept in 25 to 30 words. Incubation
- Explain the following concept in 25 to 30 words: Illumination
- Answer the following questions with the help of the given points: Explain the stages of creative thinking. Points: Preparation Incubation Illumination Verification
- Scientists, musicians, poets, fashion designers, interior decorators, etc. think in a creative way.
- Write a short note on the following: Learning by operant conditioning
- Answer in one sentence. Who is known as for explaining learning by operant conditioning?
- Explain the following concept: Learning by observation
- Tolman is known for learning by ______ processes.
- ______ is known as the 'Father of classical conditioning theory of learning'.
