Topics
Solid State
- Solid State
- Types of Solids
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Crystal Structure
- Cubic System
- Packing of Particles in Crystal Lattice
- Packing Efficiency
- Crystal Defects or Imperfections
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Overview of Solid State
Solid State
- Introduction to Solid State
- Classification of Crystalline Solids
- Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
- Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
- Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
- Close Packed Structures of Solids
- Efficiency of Packing in Body-centred Cubic Structures
- Close Packed Structures - Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled
- Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell
- Imperfections in Solids - Introduction
- Properties of Solids: Magnetic Properties
- Band Theory of Metals
- Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties
- Applications of n-type and p-type Semiconductors
Solutions
- Introduction to Solutions
- Types of Solutions
- Capacity of Solution to Dissolve Solute
- Solubility
- Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Liquids in Liquids
- Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
- Vapour Pressure Lowering
- Boiling Point Elevation
- Depression in Freezing Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Colligative Properties of Electrolytes
- Overview of Solutions
Solutions and Colligative Properties
- Types of Solutions
- Expressing Concentration of Solutions
- Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
- Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
- Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass - Introduction
- Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
- Depression of Freezing Point
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Abnormal Molar Masses
- Elevation of Boiling Point
Chemical Thermodynamics and Energetic
- Chemical Thermodynamics and Energetic
- Concepts of System
- Types of Systems
- Surroundings
- Work, Heat, Energy, Extensive and Intensive Properties
- State Functions
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Internal Energy and Enthalpy
- Hess’ Law of Constant Heat Summation
- Enthalpy of Bond Dissociation
- Combustion, Formation, Atomization, Sublimation
- Phase Transition
- Ionization and Solution
- Dilution Introduction of Entropy as a State Function
- Free Energy Change for Spontaneous and Non Spontaneous Processes
- Equilibrium Constant
- Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics
Ionic Equilibria
- Ionic Equilibria
- Types of Electrolyte
- Acids and Bases in Daily Life
- Ionization of Acids and Bases
- Autoionization of Water
- The pH Scale
- Hydrolysis of Salts
- Buffer Solutions
- Solubility product
- Common Ion Effect
- Overview of Ionic Equilibria
Chemical Thermodynamics
- Chemical Thermodynamics
- Terms Used in Thermodynamics
- Nature of Heat and Work
- Expression for Pressure-volume (PV) Work
- Concept of Maximum Work
- Internal Energy (U)
- First Law of Thermodynamics
- Enthalpy (H)
- Enthalpies of Physical Transformations
- Thermochemistry
- Spontaneous (Irreversible) Process
- Overview of Chemical Thermodynamics
Electrochemistry
- Electrochemical Cells
- Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions - Introduction
- Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Concentration
- Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis - Introduction
- Primary Batteries
- Lead Accumulator
- Galvanic or Voltaic Cells - Introduction
- Nernst Equation - Introduction
- Relation Between Gibbs Energy Change and Emf of a Cell
- fuel cell
- Factors Affecting Corrosion
- Redox Reaction
Electrochemistry
- Electrochemistry
- Electric Conduction
- Electrical Conductance of Solution
- Electrochemical Cells
- Electrolytic Cell
- Galvanic or Voltaic Cell
- Electrode Potential and Cell Potential
- Thermodynamics of Galvanic Cells
- Reference Electrodes
- Galvanic Cells Useful in Day-to-day Life
- Fuel Cells
- Electrochemical Series (Electromotive Series)
- Overview of Electrochemistry
Chemical Kinetics
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
Chemical Kinetics
- Chemical Kinetics
- Rate of Reactions
- Rate of Reaction and Reactant Concentration
- Molecularity of Elementary Reactions
- Integrated Rate Equations
- First Order Reactions
- Zero Order Reactions
- Half Life Period of a Reaction
- Pseudo First Order Reaction
- Integrated Rate Law for Gas Phase f Reactions
- Collision Theory of Bimolecular Reactions
- Temperature Dependence of Reaction Rates
- Effect of a Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction
- Overview of Chemical Kinetics
P-block Elements
Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
- Occurrence of Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
- Electronic Configuration of Elements of Group 16, 17 and 18
- Atomic and Physical Properties of Elements of Group 16, 17 and 18
- Anomalous Behaviour of Oxygen
- Anomalous Behaviour of Fluorine
- Chemical Properties of Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
- Oxoacids
- Oxygen and Compounds of Oxygen
- Chlorine
- Concept of Group 18 Elements
- Overview of Elements of Groups 16, 17 and 18
Group 15 Elements
Group 16 Elements
Group 17 Elements
- Concept of Group 17 Elements
- Anomalous Behaviour of Fluorine
- Compounds of Halogens
- Chlorine
- Hydrogen Chloride
- Interhalogen Compounds
- Oxoacids of Halogens
Group 18 Elements
Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Position in the Periodic Table of Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Electronic Configuration of Transition and Inner Transition Elements
- Oxidation States of First Transition Series
- Physical Properties of First Transition Series
- Trends in Atomic Properties of the First Transition Series
- Preparation of Potassium Permanganate
- Chemical Properties of KMnO4
- Uses of KMnO4
- K2Cr2O7: Preparation of Potassium Dichromate
- Chemical Properties of K2Cr2O7
- Common Properties of d Block Elements
- Basic Principles of Metallurgy > Extraction of Metals
- Inner Transition (f-block) Elements: Lanthanoids and Actinoids
- Properties of f-block Elements
- Properties of Lanthanoids
- Applications of Lanthanoids
- The Actinoids
- Properties of Actinoids
- Applications of Actinoids
- Postactinoid Elements
- Overview of Transition and Inner Transition Elements
D and F Block Elements
D-block Elements
- General Indroduction
- Position in the Periodic Table - d-block Elements
- Electronic Configurations of the D-block Elements
- General Properties of the Transition Elements (D-block)
- Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements
F-block Elements
Coordination Compounds
- Introduction
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Formulas of Mononuclear Coordination Entities
- Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds - Naming of Mononuclear Coordination Compounds
- Importance of Coordination Compounds
- Definitions of Some Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds
- Colour in Coordination Compounds
- Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
- Bonding in Coordination Compounds - Introduction
- Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds
- Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
- Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
- Stereoisomerism
- Structural Isomerism
- Importance of Coordination Compounds
Coordination Compounds
- Coordination Compounds
- Types of Ligands
- Terms Used in Coordination Chemistry
- Classification of Complexes
- IUPAC Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
- Effective Atomic Number (EAN) Rule
- Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
- Stability of the Coordination Compounds
- Theories of Bonding in Complexes
- Applications of Coordination Compounds
- Overview of Coordination Compounds
Halogen Derivatives of Alkanes (And Arenes)
Halogen Derivatives
- Classification of Halogen Derivatives
- Nomenclature of Halogen Derivatives
- Methods of Preparation of Alkyl Halides
- Physical Properties
- Optical Isomerism in Halogen Derivatives
- Chemical Properties
- Reaction with Active Metals
- Uses and Environmental Effects of Some Polyhalogen Compounds
- Nomenclature
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Elimination Reactions
- Overview of Halogen Derivatives
Haloalkanes
- Introduction of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nomenclature
- Nature of C-X Bond
- Physical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reactions of Haloalkanes - Elimination Reactions
- R-s and D-l Configuration
Haloarenes
- Introduction of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- Nature of C-X Bond
- Reactions of Haloarenes - Nucleophilic Substitution
- Nucleophilic Substitution
- Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
- Reaction with Metals
- R-S and D-l Configurations
- Polyhalogen Compounds
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers Alcohols
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Classification of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Nomenclature
- Alcohols and Phenols
- Ethers
- Uses of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Overview of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
- Overview: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Alcohols
Phenols
- Phenols
- Nomenclature
- Methods of Preparation
- Physical and Chemical Properties
- Acidic Nature of Phenol
- Electrophillic Substitution Reactions
- Uses of Phenols
Ethers
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Introduction of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Classification of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties
- Polarity of Carbonyl Group
- Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Reactions Due to α-hydrogen
- Overview: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Overview of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes and Ketones
- Introduction of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Nature of Carbonyl Group
- Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
- Reactivity of Alpha Hydrogen in Aldehydes
- Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Other Reactions
Carboxylic Acids
- Carboxylic Acids
- Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
- Structure of the Carboxyl group
- Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
- Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
- Chemical Properties and Reactions of Carboxylic Acid
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of O-H Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving Cleavege of C-OH Bond
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Reactions Involving –COOH Group
- Chemical Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
- Uses of Carboxylic Acids
Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
Amines
- Classification of Amines
- Nomenclature of Amines
- Preparation of Amines
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Basicity of Amines
- Chemical Properties of Amines
- Reactions of Arene Diazonium Salts
- Reaction with Arenesulfonyl Chloride
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution in Aromatic Amines
- Overview of Amines
Amines
- Introduction of Amines
- Nomenclature of Animes
- Classification of Amines
- Structure of Amines
- Physical Properties of Amines
- Uses of Amines
- Identification of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amines
- Secondary and Tertiary Amines
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Carbylamine Reaction
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Nitrous Acid
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Reaction with Arylsulphonyl Chloride
- Chemical Reactions of Amines - Electrophilic Substitution
- Preparation of Amines
Cyanides and Isocyanides
Diazonium Salts
Biomolecules
Biomolecules
- Principal Molecules of the Living World
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Carbohydrates
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Proteins
- Overview of Biomolecules
- Overview: Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Proteins
- Introduction of Proteins
- Amino Acids
- Peptide
- Linkage
- Polypeptides
- Structure of Proteins
- Biomolecules in the Cell > Enzymes
- Lipids and Hormones
- Structure, Classification and Functions
Vitamins
- Introduction of Vitamins
- Classification of Vitamins
- Important Vitamins, Their Sources and Their Deficiency Diseases
Nucleic Acids
Polymers
- Introduction to Polymers
- Classification of Polymers Based on Source
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Copolymerisation
- Some Important Polymers
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Condensation Polymerisation Or Step Growth Polymerisation
- Nylon 6
- Nylon 66
- Types of Polymerisation Reactions - Rubber
- Biodegradable Polymers
- Preparation of Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)
- Preparation of Polyacrylonitrile
Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
- Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
- Classification of Polymers
- Some Important Polymers
- Molecular Mass and Degree of Polymerization of Polymers
- Biodegradable Polymers
- Commercially Important Polymers
- Preparation of Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)
- Overview of Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
- Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
- Principles of Green Chemistry
- The Role of Green Chemistry
- Introduction to Nanochemistry
- Characteristic Features of Nanoparticles
- Synthesis of Nanomaterials
- History of Nanotechnology
- Applications of Nanomaterials
- Nanoparticles and Nanotechnology
- Overview of Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry
Chemicals in Medicines
Chemicals in Food
Cleansing Agents
Estimated time: 33 minutes
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Green Chemistry
The use of chemistry for pollution prevention through environmentally conscious design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances is called green chemistry.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Sustainable Development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is called sustainable development.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Principles of Green Chemistry
| No. | Principle | Main Idea | Key Objective | Example / Focus |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Prevention of Waste | Avoid formation of waste instead of treating it later | Minimize waste generation | Zero Waste Technology (ZWT) |
| 2 | Atom Economy | Maximize incorporation of reactant atoms into final product | Reduce by-products | Higher % atom economy |
| 3 | Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis | Use safer reaction pathways | Reduce toxic waste | Replace harmful chemicals like DDT |
| 4 | Designing Safer Chemicals | Design products with minimum toxicity | Protect human health | Develop low-toxicity chemicals |
| 5 | Use of Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries | Use safer solvents and minimize auxiliary substances | Reduce environmental impact | Use water or supercritical CO₂ |
| 6 | Design for Energy Efficiency | Minimize energy requirements | Reduce energy consumption | Reactions at room temperature and pressure |
| 7 | Use of Renewable Feedstocks | Prefer renewable raw materials | Conserve non-renewable resources | Plant-based raw materials |
| 8 | Reduce Derivatives | Avoid unnecessary protection/deprotection steps | Improve atom economy | Minimize blocking groups |
| 9 | Use of Catalysis | Use catalysts instead of stoichiometric reagents | Increase selectivity and efficiency | Industrial catalysts (e.g., Ni, Ziegler–Natta) |
| 10 | Design for Degradation | Design products that break down safely | Prevent environmental persistence | Biodegradable materials |
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Characteristic Features of Nanoparticles
| No. | Characteristic Feature | Description | Key Effect at Nanoscale | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Colour | Optical properties change at nanoscale | Materials show different colours than bulk form | Gold nanoparticles appear red instead of yellow |
| 2 | Surface Area | Surface-to-volume ratio increases as particle size decreases | Higher reactivity due to more exposed surface atoms | Small cubes have greater total surface area than a large cube |
| 3 | Catalytic Activity | Catalysts become more active due to larger surface area | Increased reaction rate and efficiency | Pt nanoparticles in hydrogenation; TiO₂, ZnO in photocatalysis |
| 4 | Thermal Property (Melting Point) | Melting point changes with particle size | Smaller particles melt at lower temperatures | Sodium clusters melt at lower temperature than bulk sodium |
| 5 | Mechanical Properties | Strength and hardness increase at nanoscale | Enhanced mechanical performance | Nano copper and palladium show higher hardness |
| 6 | Electrical Conductivity | Electrical behaviour differs at nanoscale | May behave as conductor or semiconductor | Carbon nanotubes show varied conductivity |
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Nanoscience
The study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales where properties differ significantly from bulk materials is called nanoscience.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Nanotechnology
The design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale is called nanotechnology.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Nanomaterial
A material having structural components with at least one dimension in the nanometer range (1–100 nm) is called nanomaterial.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Zero-dimensional Nanostructure
A nanostructure in which all three dimensions are in the nanometer scale is called a zero-dimensional nanostructure.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: One-dimensional Nanostructure
A nanostructure in which two dimensions are in the nanometer scale is called a one-dimensional nanostructure.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Two-dimensional Nanostructure
A nanostructure in which one dimension is in the nanometer scale is called a two-dimensional nanostructure.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Definition: Nanochemistry
The branch of science dealing with the design and synthesis of materials at the nanoscale with controlled size, shape, structure and composition is called nanochemistry.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Applications of Nanomaterials
- Nanoparticles are used to develop stronger, lighter and smarter materials such as scratch-proof eyeglasses, crack-resistant paints and advanced transport materials.
- Nanomaterials are widely used in electronic devices, for example in Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM).
- Nanotechnology plays an important role in water purification, where silver nanoparticles are used as effective disinfectants to remove bacteria like E. coli.
- Nanostructures are used in self-cleaning materials based on the lotus effect, which helps surfaces repel water and dirt.
Maharashtra State Board: Class 12
Key Points: Nanoparticles and Nanotechnology
- Nanotechnology has revolutionized electronics and computing by improving performance and efficiency of devices.
- In the energy sector, nanotechnology makes solar power more economical and improves energy storage systems.
- In the medical field, nanotechnology helps in manufacturing smart drugs and in treating serious diseases like cancer and diabetes with fewer side effects.
- Despite its advantages, nanotechnology can cause nano pollution and health risks such as lung damage due to inhalation of nanoparticles.
