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Overview of Towards Independence and Partition: The Last Phase(1935-1947)

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Topics

  • Towards Independence and Partition: The Last Phase(1935-1947)
    • Role of M.N. Roy
    • Role of Jawaharlal Nehru
    • Role of Subhas Chandra Bose
    • Congress Socialists
    • Trade Union Activities
    • Kisan Sabha Movement
    • Growth of Communalism
    • Provincial Autonomy under the 1935 Act
    • The Congress Ministries
    • Assessment of the Activities
    • National Movements During the Second World War
    • The August Offer of 1940
    • Quit India Resolution
    • Spread of the Movement
    • Violent Public Reaction
    • Important Storm Centres of the Movement
    • Movement in Three Phases
    • Causes of the Failure of the Movement
    • Significance of the Movement
    • Contribution of Subhas Chandra Bose along with the Objectives of the INA
    • Significance of the INA Movement
    • Transfer of Power (1945-1947)
    • Reaction against the Cabinet Mission Plan
    • Communal Riots in different parts of the Country
    • Formation of the Interim Government
    • Attlee's Declaration of 1947
    • The Mountbatten Plan
    • The Indian Independence Act, 1947
    • Execution of the Mountbatten Plan
    • Overview of Towards Independence and Partition: The Last Phase(1935-1947)
  • Indian History
  • World History
  • Establishment and Development of Indian Democracy (1947-1966)
  • Challenges to Indian Democracy (1964-1977)
    • Period: (1964 to 1977)
    • Naxal Movement
    • Main Leaders of the Movement
    • J P Movement (1974-75)
    • Course of the Movement
    • Emergency (1975–1976)
    • Suspension of Democratic Organs
    • Criticism of the Emergency Era May Be Grouped As
    • Revocation of Emergency and Announcement of Elections (1977)
    • Overview of Challenges to Indian Democracy (1964-1977)
  • Changing Face of the Indian Democracy (1977-1986)
  • India's Foreign Policy
  • Movements for Women's Rights
  • World War-II
    • Factors Leading to the World War II
    • Aggressive Policy of Germany
    • Aggressive Policy of Italy
    • Aggressive Policy of Japan
    • Anglo-french Appeasement Policies
    • War in Europe
    • War in Africa
    • Attack on Russia
    • Fall of Italy
    • Fall of Germany
    • Fall of Japan
    • American Entry and Contribution to the Victory
    • Reasons for the Defeat of the Axis Powers
    • Overview of World War-II
  • De-Colonisation in Asia (China) and Africa (Ghana and Kenya)
  • Cold War 1945-1991 : Origin, Course, End and Impact
  • Protest Movements (Civil Rights Movement, Anti-Apartheid Movement and Feminist Movement)
  • Middle East : Israeli-Palestine Conflict (1916-1993)
    • Post-War Conflict in Palestine and the Formation of Israel
    • World Zionist Movement
    • Arab-Israeli Wars and the Camp David Accord (1948–1979)
    • The Suez Issue (1956)
    • Causes of the Arab-Israel War
    • The Six Day War (1967)
    • The Yom Kippur War (1973)
    • Camp David and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace (1978-79)
    • Israel PLO OSLO Peace Accord (1993)
    • Overview of Middle East : Israeli-Palestine Conflict (1916-1993)
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Growth of Socialist Ideas > Role of M.N. Roy

  • Early Revolutionary Activities: Influenced by revolutionary nationalism in Bengal, M. N. Roy participated in the anti-partition movement of 1905 and joined the Anushilan Samiti.
  • Belief in Armed Struggle: He believed that armed struggle was the only way to end British rule and therefore looked for foreign support.
  • International Activities: M. N. Roy travelled to Germany, Japan, China, the USA and Mexico in search of help and during this period developed an interest in Marxism.
  • Role in Communist Movement: He helped form the Communist Party of Mexico (1919) and later played a key role in the formation of the Communist Party of India, whose formal beginning was in 1925.
  • Later Political Career: Due to differences with the Communists, he broke away, returned to India, founded the Radical Democratic Party in 1940, and remained an important political thinker until his death in 1954. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Growth of Socialist Ideas > Role of Jawaharlal Nehru

  • Influence of Socialism: Nehru was influenced by socialist ideas through European socialism and the Russian Revolution of 1917.
  • Visit to the Soviet Union (1927): His visit to the Soviet Union in 1927 impressed him with its economic planning and social reconstruction.
  • Left-Wing Leadership in Congress: His election as Congress President in 1929, 1936 and 1937 showed the growing left-wing tendency within the Congress.
  • Karachi Session, 1931: At the Karachi Session of 1931, Nehru stressed that political freedom must include economic freedom, demanding living wages and state control of key industries.
  • Congress and Socialism: Nehru helped develop socialist policies at the Lucknow and Faizpur Sessions (1935–36) and urged the Congress to adopt socialism as its goal. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Growth of Socialist Ideas > Role of Subhas Chandra Bose

  • Socialist Ideology: Subhas Chandra Bose had strong socialist leanings and supported complete independence with social and economic justice.
  • Youth Leadership: He was the founder-President of the All Bengal Youth League, advocating reforms for workers and peasants.
  • Egalitarian Vision: Bose aimed to create an egalitarian society without discrimination based on caste, creed, religion or birth.
  • Labour and Industrial Policy: He supported labour movements, led the Tata Iron and Steel Works strike (1928), and stressed state responsibility for employment.
  • Role in Congress Politics: Bose emerged as a leading socialist voice within the Congress, contributing to the growth of the left-wing trend in the late 1930s.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Growth of Socialist Ideas > Congress Socialists

  • Formation (1934): Leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Ram Manohar Lohia and Aruna Asaf Ali formed the Congress Socialist Party in 1934 within the Indian National Congress.
  • Aims and Programme: They sought to promote socialist ideas through the Congress and to continue the national struggle with the support of workers and peasants.
  • Opposition within Congress: Senior Congress leaders opposed the Socialists; the Working Committee condemned their radical programme in 1934.
  • Nehru’s Attitude: Jawaharlal Nehru was sympathetic to socialist ideas and supported many of their views but did not formally join the group due to his loyalty to Gandhiji.
  • Role and Significance: Despite internal differences, the Congress Socialists remained within the Congress and gradually became an important left-wing force during the 1930s and 1940s. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Two basic differences between the Congress Socialists and the Communists

Basis 

Congress Socialists 

Communists 

Allegiance 

They owed their allegiance to the Indian National Congress and remained nationalists. 

They owed their allegiance to the Communist International. 

Outlook/Goal 

They believed in class struggle and aimed at abolishing capitalism, the zamindari system and the princely states within a national framework. 

They believed in creating an International Communist Society and followed an international outlook. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Trade Union Activities

  • Industrial Centres: Bombay and Calcutta were major centres of textile, jute and tea industries, with a large working-class population living in poor conditions and working long hours.
  • Early Efforts: Early attempts to organise workers were made by Sasipada Banerjee and N. M. Lokhande, though these were not modern trade unions.
  • First Trade Union: The Madras Labour Union, the first modern trade union in India, was formed in April 1918 by B. P. Wadia.
  • Growth after 1919: Trade union activity increased after 1919–20, leading to strikes in major industrial centres and the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1927.
  • Problems and Splits: The movement faced slow growth due to fear of dismissal, the Great Depression (1929–30), and internal splits within AITUC in 1929 and 1931, which weakened it. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Kisan Sabha Movement

  • Causes: Heavy taxation, fear of eviction, lack of land rights, rise in prices, landlord oppression, and government neglect forced peasants to revolt in the 1920s–1930s.
  • Spread of Movement: The main centre was U.P., later spreading to Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Orissa, Malabar, Assam and other regions. Some protests became violent (U.P., January 1921).
  • Influence of National Movements: The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) encouraged peasant revolts. In the 1930s, Congress also supported no-tax movements in U.P., Bengal and Bihar.
  • Formation of AIKS (1936): To unite provincial Kisan Sabhas, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was formed in 1936 under leaders like Swami Sahajananda Saraswati, N.G. Ranga, Narendra Dev, Indulal Yagnik and Bankim Mukerjee.
  • Objectives and Congress Relation: AIKS demanded abolition of zamindari, land for landless, debt cancellation, irrigation facilities, and freedom from exploitation. Congress needed peasant support but right-wing leaders opposed radical demands, causing differences.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Growth of Communalism

  • Impact of Elections (1937): The Government of India Act, 1935 led to elections in which the Congress emerged strong, while the Muslim League performed poorly, exposing its weak mass base.
  • Muslim League’s Strategy: To gain support, the Muslim League raised slogans like “Islam in Danger” and warned against an impending “Hindu Raj”, thereby spreading fear and communal feelings.
  • Fear of Hindu Domination: Leaders like M.A. Jinnah claimed that the Congress aimed to establish a Hindu Raj hostile to Muslim interests, deepening Hindu–Muslim divisions.
  • Demand for Pakistan: Communal politics led to the demand for a separate Muslim state, formally expressed through the Lahore Resolution (1940) and the Two-Nation Theory.
  • Rise of Hindu Communalism: Hindu communal organisations like the Hindu Mahasabha and RSS, led by V.D. Savarkar and M.S. Golwalkar, promoted Hindu nationalism, further intensifying communal tensions.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: 1935 Act and Working of Provincial Autonomy: Congress and Other Ministries

  • Third Round Table Conference (1932): Held in London (Nov 1932) without Congress representatives. Discussions led to the Government of India Act, 1935.
  • Main Features of Act (Provincial Autonomy): Provinces were given autonomy with ministers responsible to elected legislatures, but Governors had special powers and could appoint/dismiss ministers.
  • Federal Structure & Diarchy at Centre: A Federation of British provinces and princely states was planned. Centre had bicameral legislature but Defence and Foreign Affairs were kept under Governor-General, introducing Diarchy at the Centre.
  • Reactions to the Act: The Act was rejected by Princes, Congress and Muslim League for different reasons. Federal part never started, but provincial part was implemented.
  • Elections of 1937: Congress won a major victory and formed ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces. Bengal and Punjab had non-Congress ministries. Muslim League performed poorly, especially in NWFP and Punjab.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Conditional Acceptance and Activities of Congress Ministries

  • Conditional Acceptance of Office: Congress agreed to form ministries only on the condition that Governors would not use their special powers to interfere in the working of ministries.
  • Difficult Responsibility: Congress faced a huge task because people had high expectations, but Congress ministries had limited powers and had to work under the control of the Governor-General.
  • Release of Political Prisoners: Congress ministries worked for the release of prisoners. 1100 detenues in Bengal were released due to Gandhiji’s efforts, and many prisoners including Kakori prisoners were released in U.P.
  • Civil Liberties Restored: Restrictions on political parties were removed, suspension orders were revoked, and the press was given freedom to criticize the government.
  • Popular Reforms for Peasants and Workers: Congress reduced or remitted agricultural loans, passed labour reforms like the Industrial Dispute Act (1938) in Bombay, increased wages, restricted intoxicating drugs, introduced tenancy laws, improved irrigation, and protected peasants from moneylenders.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Laws passed for the Workers

  • Labour Committee (1937): In October 1937, Congress appointed a Labour Committee and accepted a workers’ welfare programme.
  • Main Worker Demands Included: The programme supported paid holidays, paid sick leave, employment insurance, minimum wages, and recognition of trade unions.
  • Industrial Dispute Bill (Bombay): Bombay ministry introduced the Industrial Dispute Bill to reduce strikes and lockouts, but workers misunderstood it and strikes increased, which were later suppressed.
  • Major Worker Strikes Supported: Congress handled major strikes like the Kanpur strike (24,000 workers), supported the Jute Mill strike in Bengal, and in TISCO strike (Jamshedpur) Nehru and Rajendra Prasad acted as arbitrators.
  • Other Social Reforms & Achievements: Congress promoted prohibition, khadi, hand spinning, and held the Wardha Education Conference (1937) for free compulsory education. Other achievements included jail reforms, tribal welfare, salary reduction of ministers, and declaration of fundamental rights.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Non-Congress Ministries and Assessment

  • Formation of New Provinces: Under the Government of India Act, 1935, two new provinces—Sind and Orissa—were created. Along with Congress ministries, Non-Congress ministries were formed in some provinces.
  • Non-Congress Governments:
    In Bengal, Fazlul Huq formed a coalition with the Muslim League after Congress refused cooperation.
    In Sind and Assam, Congress supported non-Congress ministries.
    In Punjab, Congress was weak and could not form a ministry.
  • Reforms by Non-Congress Ministries: The Bengal ministry set up a Land Revenue Commission, formed arbitration committees, and amended the Bengal Tenancy Act to protect ryots.
  • Limitations of Congress Ministries: Congress ministries failed to introduce major land reforms due to influence of zamindars and landed classes and fear of alienating powerful social groups.
  • Resignation of Congress Ministries (1939): Congress ministries resigned in November 1939, protesting against India’s involvement in Second World War without consulting Indian legislatures.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: National Movements During the Second World War

  • Congress Ministries (1937): After elections under the Government of India Act, 1935, Congress formed ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces, and coalition governments in 2 provinces.
  • Resignation (Nov 1939): Congress ministries resigned in November 1939 because the Viceroy involved India in Second World War without consulting Indian legislatures. This kept Congress out of power during the war.
  • Muslim League Reaction: Muslim League celebrated the resignation and Jinnah called 22 December 1939 as the “Day of Deliverance”, considering it freedom from Congress rule.
  • Congress–League Conflict: Congress did not include Muslim League members in ministries after its victory. In U.P., Congress offered seats with conditions which League rejected, increasing Muslim fear of political insecurity.
  • Anti-Congress Propaganda Reports: Muslim League accused Congress of atrocities against Muslims through reports like the Pirpur Report, Shariff Report, and Fazlul Huq’s pamphlet. Allegations included communal bias, cow slaughter ban, Bande Mataram, promotion of Hindi over Urdu, and discrimination, which Congress denied.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Lahore Session of the Muslim League, 1940

  • Background to the Demand: The idea of a separate Muslim state developed after the poor performance of the Muslim League in the 1937 elections and its lack of mass support.
  • League’s New Strategy: Under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the League mobilised Muslims by portraying the Congress as representing a “Hindu Raj” hostile to Muslim interests.
  • Two-Nation Theory: At the Lahore Session (March 1940), Jinnah declared that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations, differing socially, politically and culturally.
  • Lahore Resolution: The Muslim League adopted the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.
  • Historical Significance: The Lahore Resolution marked the formal beginning of the Pakistan demand, which eventually led to the partition of India in 1947. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: The August Offer of 1940

  • August Offer (8 August 1940): Announced by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow. It promised Dominion Status after the war, a Constituent Assembly, and protection of minority (Muslim League) interests, but rejected the demand for a Provisional National Government.
  • Reaction to August Offer: The Congress rejected it as it ignored national government and encouraged anti-Congress forces. The Muslim League also remained firm on its demand for Pakistan.
  • Individual Satyagraha (1940–41): Congress decided to launch Individual Satyagraha under Gandhiji. Vinoba Bhave was the first Satyagrahi (17 Oct 1940). The movement had limited impact and was withdrawn in December 1941.
  • Background of Cripps Mission: Due to World War II threats, especially Japanese advances in South-East Asia, Britain needed Indian cooperation. Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to India in March 1942.
  • Cripps Proposals (1942): Promised Dominion Status after the war, a Constitution-making body, right of provinces to opt out of the Union, but Defence remained under British control during the war. Congress rejected these proposals.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Reactions of the Congress and Other Political Parties

  • Congress Rejection: Congress rejected the proposals as they offered Dominion Status instead of full independence, which Congress had already refused earlier.
  • Fear of Partition: Congress opposed the provision allowing provinces and princely states to opt out, seeing it as an indirect support for Pakistan.
  • No Immediate Power Transfer: Congress disliked that all promises were for the future and that Indian leaders were denied participation in the War Council. Gandhiji called it a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”
  • Muslim League Opposition: Muslim League rejected the plan as it did not guarantee Pakistan, equal representation, or separate electorates in the constitution-making body.
  • Other Communities’ Reaction: Sikhs, Depressed Classes, Christians and Anglo-Indians demanded more safeguards. Though rejected, the Mission was important as Britain accepted India’s right to frame its own constitution for the first time.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Quit India Resolution

  • Failure of Cripps Mission: The failure of the Cripps Mission convinced Congress that the British were unwilling to transfer real power to Indians.
  • Impact of World War II: Japan’s advance towards India’s eastern frontiers created fear and urgency, strengthening anti-British feelings within Congress.
  • Hope of British Withdrawal: There was a belief that the removal of British rule would prevent Japan from using India as a war base.
  • Gandhiji’s Leadership: Gandhiji lost faith in British intentions and called for an all-out struggle to force British withdrawal from India.
  • Congress Stand: The Congress accepted Gandhiji’s view almost unanimously, with Rajagopalachari as the main dissenter, leading to the adoption of the Quit India Resolution. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Adoption of the Quit-India Resolution

  • Congress Decision: The Congress Working Committee adopted the Quit India Resolution in July 1942, which was later ratified by the AICC on 8 August 1942.
  • Gandhiji’s Call: Gandhiji gave a clarion call to the people to participate through non-violent means, including strikes and satyagraha.
  • “Do or Die” Message: He urged the nation to act with determination through the slogan “Karenge ya Marenge” (Do or Die).
  • Lack of Specific Programme: While calling for British withdrawal, Congress did not lay down a clear line of action.
  • British Repression: On 9 August 1942, Gandhiji and other leaders were arrested, and the Congress was declared illegal. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Spread of the Quit-India Movement

  • Nationwide Reaction: Arrest of Gandhiji and Congress leaders led to hartals, demonstrations and processions across India.
  • New Leadership: With senior leaders jailed, the youth and students took charge of the movement at local levels.
  • Change in Nature: The movement began as non-violent but later turned violent due to severe government repression.
  • Forms of Protest: Protesters cut telegraph and telephone wires, damaged railways, and attacked government buildings and police stations.
  • Political Response: Congress Socialists supported the movement, while the Muslim League, Communist Party of India and Hindu Mahasabha opposed it. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Violent Public Reaction

  • The Quit India Movement turned violent and government authority collapsed in many areas.
  • Parallel governments were set up at Satara and Tamluk.
  • In parts of Orissa, Eastern U.P. and Bihar, administration became ineffective.
  • The movement received strong mass support in many provinces.
  • Underground activities were led by Jayaprakash Narayan, with Congress Radio run by Usha Mehta. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Important Storm Centres of the Movement

  • Mass Participation: Despite non-participation by the Muslim League and Communist Party, people from all sections of society actively joined the movement.
  • Five Major Storm Centres: The movement had five main centres covering almost the whole of India.
  • Important Areas of Bihar & U.P.: Major centres were Bhagalpur, Hazaribagh and Saran (Bihar) and Benaras, Ghazipur, Balia and Azamgarh (U.P.).
  • Centres in Bengal, Orissa & Maharashtra: Other important centres included Tamluk (Midnapore, Bengal), Balasore, Koraput and Talcher (Orissa), and Nasik and Satara (Maharashtra).
  • Role of Social Groups & Women: Caste Hindus, Harijans and women actively participated. Prominent women leaders included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sarojini Naidu and Sucheta Kripalani.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Movement In Three Phases

  • First Phase (Urban Phase): The movement began in urban centres with hartals, demonstrations and strikes in factories, schools and offices.
  • Second Phase (Rural Phase): Leadership passed to rural masses; government buildings were attacked and parallel governments were formed at places like Tamluk, Balia and Talcher.
  • Third Phase (Underground Phase): Underground revolutionary activities were organised by leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan and Ramananda Misra.
  • Last Phase (Decline Phase): Movement slowed down and continued till May 1944, ending after Gandhiji’s release from jail. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Causes of the Failure of the Movement

  • Arrest of Leaders: The arrest of Gandhiji and senior leaders left the movement without centralized leadership, causing disorganization.
  • Lack of Preparation: According to Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the movement failed due to the absence of proper planning before the arrests.
  • Limited Support: The rulers of princely states, army, police, officials, capitalists and merchants remained loyal to the British.
  • Political Non-Support: The Muslim League stayed aloof, the Hindu Mahasabha and Communist Party opposed the movement, and some Congress leaders also did not participate.
  • Severe Repression: The British used brutal repression—arrests, firing, flogging, aerial attacks and press censorship—to crush the movement. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Significance of the Movement

  • Mass Determination: The movement revealed the strong determination of Indians to end British rule despite its failure.
  • End of British Authority: It showed that India could no longer be ruled by force after the war, forcing Britain to consider negotiations.
  • Peak of Freedom Struggle: The Quit India Movement (1942) marked the climax of India’s struggle for independence.
  • Psychological Impact: Fear of British power disappeared from the minds of the Indian people, strengthening the freedom movement.
  • International Support: The movement created strong international opinion in favour of India, especially in the USA and China. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Subhas Chandra Bose and The INA

  • Leadership of INA (1943): Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore in June 1943 after a dangerous submarine journey from Germany and took over the leadership of the Indian National Army (INA) from Rash Behari Bose, and came to be known as Netaji.
  • Provisional Government of Azad Hind: On 21 October 1943, Netaji formed the Provisional Government of Free India, which declared war on Britain and the USA and was recognised by Axis Powers and countries like Burma and Thailand.
  • Mobilisation & Slogans: Netaji reorganised the INA with about 20,000 Indian soldiers and gave inspiring slogans like “Jai Hind”, “Delhi Chalo” and “Tum Mujhe Khoon Do, Main Tumhe Azadi Dunga.”
  • Military Campaign in India: INA joined the Japanese army, crossed the Indian border on 18 March 1944, fought the British in the Assam Hills, and hoisted the Indian national flag on Indian soil.
  • Collapse of INA (1945): INA’s success was short-lived due to Japanese withdrawal, heavy monsoon rains, and British counter-attacks. After Japan’s surrender on 15 August 1945, the INA collapsed and its soldiers were captured.
  • Death of Netaji: It is believed that Netaji died in an air crash while travelling to Tokyo, but this remains controversial and unproven, and many people refuse to believe it.
  • Review of Netaji’s Policy: Netaji’s policy of seeking help from Germany and Japan was criticised, but he did so only for India’s freedom. By forming the INA, he gave a powerful example of patriotism, courage and sacrifice, which inspired Indians and weakened British authority.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Subhas Chandra Bose’s Rift with Gandhiji

  • Policy Differences (1938): Bose and Gandhiji differed over industrialisation and the National Planning Committee proposed by Bose.
  • Approach to National Struggle: Bose favoured mass mobilisation and active resistance, while Gandhiji preferred constitutional and non-violent methods.
  • Princely States Issue: Bose supported intervention in Princely States’ movements; Gandhiji opposed Congress involvement.
  • Tripuri Session Conflict (1939): Bose’s re-election as Congress President led to opposition from the Gandhian wing, creating a leadership deadlock.
  • Resignation and Forward Bloc: Bose resigned from the Congress presidency and formed the Forward Bloc (1939) to pursue radical nationalism and complete independence. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: The Great Escape, January 1941 and Changing Situation in South-East Asia

  • World War II Opportunity: The outbreak of World War II gave Subhas Chandra Bose an opportunity to seek foreign help to overthrow British rule in India.
  • The Great Escape (Jan 1941): Bose escaped from house arrest in Calcutta in January 1941, disguised and unnoticed, and secretly travelled through several countries.
  • Germany Phase: Bose reached Germany, where he formed the Indian Legion and started the Free India Radio, but found Germany’s support insufficient.
  • Shift to Japan & South-East Asia: As Japan weakened British power in South-East Asia, Bose moved to Japan and received Japanese support for India’s liberation.
  • Birth of INA (1942): With the efforts of Rash Behari Bose and Captain Mohan Singh, Indian prisoners of war were organised, leading to the formation of the Indian National Army (INA) in 1942, and Bose was invited to lead it.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Significance of the INA Movement

  • The INA movement inspired the Indian armed forces and led to the Naval Mutiny of Bombay, weakening British control.
  • Workers across India supported the Naval Mutiny; strikes and mass protests took place in major cities.
  • The INA trials at the Red Fort (1945) revealed Netaji and INA’s heroic struggle to the entire nation.
  • Nationwide protests forced the British Government to withdraw the trials and release INA prisoners.
  • British leaders accepted that India could no longer be ruled by force; the INA marked the final phase of India’s freedom struggle. 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Transfer of Power (1945-1947)

  • Changed British attitude after WWII: After World War II, Britain became weak economically and politically, and events like INA trials, Royal Indian Navy revolt, and labour unrest increased pressure to leave India.
  • Wavell Plan & Simla Conference (1945): Viceroy Lord Wavell called Indian leaders at Simla to form a new council where all members (except Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief) would be Indians, but the plan failed.
  • Reason for failure: Jinnah demanded that only the Muslim League should nominate all Muslim members, which Congress opposed, so the Simla Conference ended without success.
  • Cabinet Mission & Interim Government: After Labour Government came to power in Britain, the Cabinet Mission proposed a Federal Union and formation of an Interim Government, which was later formed under Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • Mountbatten Plan & Partition (1947): Due to rising communal violence (Direct Action Day), Attlee announced transfer of power, Mountbatten became Viceroy, and the Mountbatten Plan led to Partition of India, creation of Boundary Commission under Radcliffe, and independence on 15 August 1947.
 
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

  • Formation of Cabinet Mission: After the Labour Party came to power in Britain (1945), Prime Minister Clement Attlee sent the Cabinet Mission (Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander) to resolve the Indian political deadlock.
  • Federal structure proposed: The Mission proposed an Indian Federation including British Indian provinces and princely states, with the Centre controlling only Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications.
  • Grouping of provinces: Provinces were divided into Group A (Hindu-majority), Group B and Group C (Muslim-majority), giving Muslims autonomous areas and indirectly satisfying the Muslim League.
  • Constitution-making body: A Constituent Assembly was to be formed with representation of General, Muslim and Sikh communities through proportional representation.
  • Right to secede: Groups were allowed to opt out of the Union after the constitution was framed, and India could decide whether to stay in or leave the British Commonwealth.
  • Rejection of Pakistan demand: The Cabinet Mission rejected Pakistan as impractical due to mixed populations, economic problems, geographical separation and disruption of regional unity.
  • Mixed reactions:
    (i) Congress accepted the Constituent Assembly but opposed compulsory grouping.
    (ii) Muslim League accepted the plan, seeing it as a step towards Pakistan.
    (iii) Sikhs and Depressed Classes opposed it due to fear of Muslim domination and inadequate representation.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Direct Action Day and Political Crisis (1946–1947)

  • Congress victory (July 1946) in Constituent Assembly elections alarmed Jinnah, who called it a “brute majority” and feared Hindu domination.
  • Muslim League withdrew support from the Cabinet Mission Plan and announced Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) to demand Pakistan, rejecting constitutional methods.
  • Direct Action Day caused communal riots, starting in Calcutta, then spreading to Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, U.P. and Punjab, leading to heavy loss of life.
  • Interim Government formed on 2 Sept 1946 under Nehru, but Muslim League initially refused and later joined with non-cooperation, making the government unstable.
  • Due to rising violence and political failure, Attlee declared (20 Feb 1947) that power would be transferred by June 1948, and Mountbatten replaced Wavell as the new Viceroy.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Mountbatten Plan and Its Features

  • Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy in March 1947 and began talks with Congress and Muslim League for the transfer of power.
  • The plan declared that India would be partitioned, and a new nation Pakistan would be created along with independent India.
  • Pakistan was to include Muslim-majority provinces like Sind, Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal, if the Punjab and Bengal Assemblies voted in favour.
  • The remaining territories, including East Punjab and West Bengal, were to form the Indian Dominion.
  • The minority members of Bengal and Punjab Assemblies were allowed to meet separately, and they voted for the partition of both Bengal and Punjab.
  • An opinion poll was held in Sylhet (Assam), and Sylhet voted to join East Pakistan.
  • A Boundary Commission under Radcliffe fixed the borders, but both communities were unhappy—Muslims opposed losing Gurdaspur, Murshidabad, Nadia and Calcutta, while Hindus and Sikhs resented losing Lahore, Canal Colonies, Khulna and Chittagong Hill Tracts.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: The Indian Independence Act, 1947

  • The Mountbatten Plan was accepted by both Congress and Muslim League, as it allowed partition but retained maximum possible unity of India.
  • The Indian Independence Bill was passed on 1 July 1947 and received Royal Assent on 18 July 1947, leading to the creation of two independent dominions—India and Pakistan.
  • It was decided that Pakistan and India would become independent on 14th and 15th August 1947 respectively.
  • Congress accepted partition because by 1946 the Muslim masses strongly supported the Muslim League, and the situation became violent due to Direct Action and communal riots.
  • Congress believed partition was the lesser evil compared to civil war, as the Interim Government had collapsed, administration was breaking down, and a smaller India with a strong centre was preferred over a weak federation.
CISCE: Class 12

Key Points: Role of the British Government

  • Hasty partition: Lord Mountbatten rushed the process, with independence granted before final boundary decisions.
  • Radcliffe Line issues: Boundaries were finalized late, increasing confusion and violence during Partition.
  • Breakdown of law and order: British failure to manage transition led to riots, massacres, and mass migration.
  • Compulsion, not choice: Britain lacked resources after WWII and feared civil war, forcing a quick exit.
  • End of British power: Partition marked the decline of Britain as a major world power. 
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