Revision: Biotechnology and Its Applications >> Biotechnology and Its Applications Biology (Theory) ISC (Science) ISC Class 12 CISCE

The soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces an insecticidal protein called Bt toxin.

Stem cells are undifferentiated; unspecialised, totipotent cells that can divide indefinitely for self‑renewal and have the potential to differentiate into different types of specialised cells.

The technique of treating genetic disorders by correcting defective genes in somatic cells is called gene therapy.

ELISA is an immunological test based on the antigen–antibody reaction, used to detect and measure antigens or antibodies in biological samples.

A transgenic animal is an animal whose genome has been artificially modified to contain one or more genes from another species.

Biopiracy is defined as ‘theft of various natural products and then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits or compensation back to the host country’.

or

It is an unauthorised misappropriation of any biological resource and indigenous knowledge.

Patents granted for biological entities and for products derived from them are called biopatents.

Bioethics are a set of standards that may be used to regulate our activities in relation to the biological world.

Bioethics is the branch of ethics that deals with moral principles and issues arising from advances in biology, medicine, and life sciences.

• Biotechnology in agriculture involves the use of genetically modified (GM) crops to improve productivity, pest resistance, and stress tolerance.
• Tissue culture is used for micropropagation, allowing rapid and large-scale production of identical plants (clones).
• It is also useful for germplasm conservation and for plants with recalcitrant seeds that are difficult to store.
• To increase food production, three approaches are used: agrochemical-based, organic, and genetically engineered crop-based agriculture.
• Genetic engineering helps overcome the limitations of traditional methods and reduces dependence on expensive and polluting agrochemicals.

• GM crops are developed to tolerate abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, heat, and cold.
• They show pest resistance, reducing the use of chemical pesticides (e.g., Bt cotton).
• GM crops help in reducing post-harvest losses by increasing shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
• They improve nutritional value of food, such as vitamin A–rich Golden Rice.
• GM plants are also used for industrial purposes and environmental cleanup (phytoremediation).

• Nematode pests like Meloidogyne incognita damage plant roots, reduce crop yield, and require bioengineering for resistance.
• RNA interference (RNAi) is used to silence pest genes by preventing translation of nematode mRNA.
• In transgenic tobacco, both sense and antisense RNA are produced, forming dsRNA that triggers post-transcriptional gene silencing.
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used as a vector to transfer nematode-specific genes, making plants pest resistant.

• Recombinant DNA technology allows for the mass production of safe therapeutic proteins, eliminating the allergic reactions associated with earlier animal-derived medicines.
• Genetically engineered human insulin is produced by separately synthesising the A and B chains in E. coli and linking them with disulphide bonds.
• Biotechnology facilitates the development of recombinant subunit vaccines, which use specific pathogen antigens to safely stimulate the immune system.
• Transgenic plants can be engineered to produce cost-effective edible vaccines that deliver injection-free mucosal and systemic immunity upon consumption.
• Gene therapy treats genetic disorders like ADA deficiency (SCID) by using retroviral vectors to insert a functional gene into a patient's extracted lymphocytes.
• Patients receiving gene therapy for ADA deficiency require periodic infusions of genetically corrected lymphocytes because these cells have a limited lifespan.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a highly sensitive molecular diagnostic tool that amplifies trace amounts of DNA or RNA to detect diseases before clinical symptoms arise.
• Molecular diagnostics also use ELISA for mass screening via antigen-antibody reactions and DNA probes to detect specific genetic mutations through hybridisation.

• Gene therapy is the treatment of diseases by replacing, altering, or adding genes to correct genetic defects.
• It is used to treat genetic disorders such as haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, and thalassemia.
• Genes can be delivered into cells by ex vivo (outside the body), in vivo (inside the body), or using vectors like viruses and liposomes.
• There are two types: germ-line therapy (affects future generations, not used in humans) and somatic cell therapy (affects only the patient and is commonly used).
• Gene therapy has applications in treating genetic diseases, cancer, and improving immune response, but it involves technical and ethical challenges.

• Molecular diagnosis enables early detection of diseases using techniques like PCR and ELISA before symptoms appear.
• PCR detects very low levels of pathogen DNA or RNA by amplification and is used for diseases like HIV and genetic disorders.
• DNA probes labeled with radioactive markers help identify mutations by hybridization and autoradiography.

• Transgenic animals have artificially modified genomes containing specific foreign genes from other species.
• They are produced by isolating a desired gene, inserting it into a host embryo, and growing it into a complete animal expressing the new trait.
• They serve as essential living models for studying normal physiology, understanding complex diseases, and testing the safety of vaccines and chemicals.
• They function as biological factories for therapeutic products, such as "Rosie," the first transgenic cow that produced human protein-enriched milk.
• Mice are the most widely used models in disease research, while other animals such as sheep, pigs, and fish are utilised for medical and agricultural advancements.

• Biopiracy is the unauthorised use or patenting of biological resources and traditional knowledge without giving compensation to the original owners.
• It mainly occurs when developed countries exploit the rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge of developing countries.
• Traditional knowledge includes information about agriculture, medicines, and conservation practices passed through generations.
• Biopiracy harms indigenous communities by denying them rights, benefits, and recognition for their knowledge.
• Common examples include the patenting of neem, basmati rice, and turmeric (haldi) by foreign companies, which were later challenged and revoked.

• A biopatent is a legal right granted for biological inventions such as microorganisms, DNA sequences, genetically modified organisms, and biotechnological processes.
• A patent gives the inventor exclusive rights to use, sell, or distribute the invention for a limited period.
• Biopatents are awarded to encourage innovation and scientific development in biotechnology.
• In India, only process patents are allowed (not product patents), and biopatents are granted for a limited duration.
• Some biopatents (e.g., genetically modified seeds) are controversial as they may lead to a monopoly and threaten food security.

• Bioethics sets moral standards to safely regulate biotechnology and prevent the misuse of biological resources.
• Major ethical concerns focus on preventing animal suffering in research and avoiding the ecological risks of cross-species gene transfer.
• Biosafety protocols are essential to protect human health and the environment from the unpredictable effects of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) strictly evaluates and regulates the safe release of genetically engineered products into the environment.
• Biopiracy is the unethical, unauthorised commercial exploitation of regional biological resources and traditional knowledge without fair compensation.