Question

Read the following source carefully and answer the questions that follow:

The most ancient system yet discovered About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit, where solid matter settled, while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals, with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows... that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared”. From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948.     Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal, for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

1. Analyse the possible reasons behind the uniformity in the drainage systems across the Harappan cities. (1)
2. Analyse the implications of finding little heaps of material, mostly sand, alongside drainage channels. (1)
3. Assess the impact of the Harappan drainage system. (2)

Answer 1

1. The similarity of drainage systems found across Harappan cities points to centralized planning and common civil engineering methods. This shows that urban layouts were thoughtfully planned, indicating an efficient administration and uniform building practices, even in far-off sites such as Lothal.
2. Piles of sand near the drains indicate that the channels were cleaned regularly. At the same time, the remaining waste suggests that although maintenance took place, disposal was not always thorough, highlighting both the effectiveness and the practical limits of Harappan sanitation.
3. The Harappan drainage network greatly enhanced cleanliness and reflects sophisticated urban planning. The connection of every house to covered drains equipped with cesspits and sumps ensured hygienic waste removal, making it one of the earliest examples of well-organised civic infrastructure in the ancient world.