Revision: Variations in Psychological Attributes Psychology Commerce (English Medium) Class 12 CBSE

Self-report is a method in which a person provides factual information about herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he hold.

Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison.

Aptitude refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills.

Interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others.

Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or him distinct from others.

Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour.

Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment.

• According to Lewis Terman, “An ability to think on an abstract level is called Intelligence.”
• According to David Wechsler, ‘Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.’
• According to Binet (1905), “Intelligence refers to comprehension, intention, direction, and criticism.”
• According to Wyatt, “Intelligence is the power of apprehending the relationship between things.”
• According to Stern, “Intelligence is a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions.”
• Spearman (1904), “Intelligence is the capacity for constructive thinking, a discovery of appropriate qualities and relations of the ideas that are before us.”
• According to Thurstone (1930), “Intelligence consists of many primary abilities.”
• Thus, Kimbel and Germazy state, “Intelligence consists of the abilities that a society values, because they are useful in meeting the society’s current needs. When these needs change, the abilities that define intelligence change.”

The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve.

The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views intellectual disability as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period”.

John Mayer and Peter Salovey defined Emotional Intelligence as the ‘Ability to perceive and monitor one’s own and others emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.’

• “Creativity is a rare and unique talent in a particular field of endeavour.” - Ausubel (1963)
• “A creative individual is a person who regularly solves problems, fashions products, or defines new questions in a domain in a way that is initially considered novel but ultimately becomes accepted in a particular cultural setting.” - Gardner (1993)
• “Creativity is the ability to produce work that is original but still appropriate and useful.” - Berk (2002)

\[\mathrm{IQ}=\frac{\text{Mental Age (MA)}}{\text{Chronological Age (CA)}}\times100\]

• Mental Age (MA): The level at which a person can solve problems or answer questions, compared to the average abilities of a specific age group.
• Chronological Age (CA): The actual age in years.

• People differ in their thinking, learning, behaviour, and performance; these are called individual differences.
• Differences exist in both physical traits and psychological traits like intelligence and personality.
• Psychology studies why people differ and how these differences can be measured.
• Intelligence involves reasoning, learning, problem-solving, and adaptation.
• Behaviour is influenced by both personal traits and situational factors.

• Psychological Assessment – Assessment means measuring and evaluating psychological attributes (like intelligence, personality, interests) using scientific and standardised methods.
• Purpose of Assessment – It helps in understanding behaviour, predicting future performance, and planning guidance, counselling, or intervention.
• Domains of Psychological Attributes – Psychological attributes are multidimensional and include intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality, and values.
• Intelligence and Aptitude – Intelligence refers to general mental ability; aptitude indicates potential to learn specific skills with training.
• Interest and Personality – Interests show preferences for activities; personality refers to enduring traits that make a person unique.
• Values – Values are strong beliefs that guide a person’s behaviour and decisions in life.
• Methods of Assessment – Common methods include psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observation, and self-reports.

• Intelligence is the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
• It involves thinking rationally and dealing effectively with the environment.
• Intelligence is multi-dimensional, not limited to academic marks.
• It is shaped by both heredity and environment.
• It includes different abilities like logical, linguistic, social, and practical skills.
• Intelligence helps in academic success and everyday problem-solving.

• Alfred Binet was the first psychologist to formally define intelligence in terms of mental abilities.
• He viewed intelligence as a single general ability used to solve all kinds of problems.
• This view is called the Uni-factor or One-factor theory of intelligence.
• The theory was later challenged when psychologists analysed test data and found evidence of multiple abilities.

• Spearman’s Theory: Charles Spearman proposed the Two-Factor Theory of intelligence—General (g) and Specific (s) factors.
• g-factor: This is your overall mental ability, like a phone's processor—it affects performance in all tasks (e.g., problem-solving, reasoning).
• s-factors: These are special abilities in specific areas like music, math, or art—just like apps on a phone that do different jobs.
• Factor Analysis: A statistical tool Spearman used to find patterns in test scores and discover the g and s factors in intelligence.
• Other Views: Psychologist Thorndike believed in multiple independent intelligences—abstract, concrete, and social—rather than one general factor.

• Theory Overview: Thurstone proposed that intelligence consists of seven independent abilities, called Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs), rather than a single general intelligence.
• The Seven PMAs: These include Verbal Comprehension, Word Fluency, Number Facility, Spatial Visualization, Associative Memory, Perceptual Speed, and Reasoning.
• Key Features: Each ability is independent, but some overlap exists, showing partial support for Spearman’s g-factor.
• Strengths: Recognizes diverse cognitive strengths and allows for targeted educational interventions.
• Limitations: Some abilities overlap, and critics argue it still points toward a general intelligence (g).

• Theory Overview: J.P. Guilford explained intelligence as a combination of many abilities, organized in a 3D model.
• Three Dimensions: Intelligence involves Operations (mental processes), Contents (types of information), and Products (forms of output).
• SOI Cube: Each unique ability is a cell formed by combining one operation, one content, and one product—like a cube of mental skills.
• Example: Recalling spoken instructions as a list involves Memory (operation), Auditory Content, and Units (product).
• Application: The SOI model helps us understand how we use different mental tools in real-life tasks such as planning, remembering, and evaluating.

• Theory Overview: Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single general ability but comprises eight distinct types.
• Eight Intelligences: These include Linguistic, Logical–Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily–Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
• Learning Styles: Each person has unique strengths; some are good with words, others with numbers, music, people, or nature.
• Real-Life Relevance: Different careers require different types of intelligence—e.g., scientists use logical intelligence, musicians use musical intelligence, and teachers use interpersonal intelligence.
• Classroom Use: Helps teachers design lessons that align with students’ varied intelligences to improve engagement and understanding.

• Theory Overview: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory says intelligence has three parts—analytical, creative, and practical—not just book smarts.
• Componential (Analytical) Intelligence: Involves problem-solving and logical thinking; supports academic performance and test-taking.
• Experiential (Creative) Intelligence: Uses past experiences to create new ideas; important for innovation and creativity.
• Contextual (Practical) Intelligence: Helps a person adapt, choose, or change their environment; also known as “street smarts”.
• Real-Life Use: All three types work together—for example, solving problems (analytical), thinking creatively (creative), and adjusting to life’s challenges (practical).

• PASS Model – Developed by Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994), it explains intelligence as a set of interrelated brain processes: Planning, Attention-Arousal, and Simultaneous-Successive processing.
• Attention-Arousal – Proper level of arousal helps focus attention on relevant tasks; too much or too little arousal affects performance.
• Simultaneous Processing – Integrates information into a meaningful whole (e.g., understanding patterns or relationships).
• Successive Processing – Processes information in a serial order (e.g., remembering digits or tables step by step).
• Planning – Involves setting goals, selecting strategies, monitoring actions, and modifying plans; assessed through the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).

• Intelligence is influenced by both heredity and environment.
• Twin studies show strong genetic influence on intelligence.
• Adoption studies show children resemble biological parents, but environment also affects growth.
• Good education, nutrition, and family support increase intelligence; deprivation lowers it.
• Genes set the potential; environment shapes its development.

• First Intelligence Test – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon (1905) developed the first formal intelligence test.
• Average IQ – The mean IQ score is 100 for all age groups.
• Normal Distribution – IQ scores follow a bell-shaped (normal) curve; most people score around the average.
• Normal Range – IQ between 90–110 is considered average intelligence.
• Low IQ – IQ below 70 indicates intellectual disability (about 2% of population).
• High IQ – IQ above 130 indicates giftedness or very superior intelligence (about 2% of population).
• Use of IQ Tests – Intelligence tests help identify individuals at both high and low extremes of intellectual ability.

• Mental Age (MA) is the level of intellectual development at which a person performs on an intelligence test, compared to their Chronological Age (CA).
• The concept was introduced by Alfred Binet in 1908 through the Binet–Simon scale to identify children needing educational help.
• MA is calculated by finding the highest age level fully passed (basal age) and adding extra months for partially correct answers.
• If MA equals CA, development is average; if MA is higher than CA, intelligence is advanced; if MA is lower than CA, development is delayed.
• Mental age increases rapidly in childhood, slows in adolescence, and reaches a plateau in adulthood.
• It is useful for comparing children’s intellectual development and identifying those who need special support or advanced learning.

• Intellectual disability means IQ below 70, poor adaptive behaviour, and onset before 18 years.
• It is classified as mild, moderate, severe, and profound based on IQ level.
• Mild cases can live independently; severe and profound cases need lifelong care.
• Gifted individuals have very high intelligence (IQ 130+) and show superior performance.
• Giftedness is general ability, while talent is ability in a specific field.
• Gifted children show creativity, fast thinking, high motivation, and independent ideas.
• They need special educational programmes to develop their full potential.

• Meaning: Individual intelligence tests are administered one-on-one, allowing for personalized interaction and observation of the subject's behavior, emotions, and responses.
• Examples: Common individual tests include Binet’s Scale, Wechsler Scale, Dr. Bhatia’s Performance Test, Arthur Point Scale, and Koh’s Block Design.
• Advantages: They enable better rapport-building, deeper insight into the subject’s emotional state, and are more effective for assessing creative thinking.
• Disadvantages: These tests are time-consuming, costly, and require a trained examiner for proper administration and interpretation.
• Characteristics: Tasks are untimed and performance-based, often involving object manipulation; non-verbal apparatus-based tests must be administered individually due to logistical limitations.

• Meaning: Verbal tests assess cognitive skills through language-based questions that require reading, writing, and verbal reasoning.
• Features: Involve literacy skills, comprehension, language-based problems, and higher-order thinking.
• Question Types: Include analogies, comprehension, classification, and following directions.
• Advantages: Measure complex thinking, distinguish intelligence levels, and are standardized.
• Disadvantages: Affected by language barriers, cultural bias, and literacy requirements.
• Uses: Helpful in education, career guidance, clinical diagnosis, and psychological research.

• Performance tests require individuals to perform tasks by handling objects or materials.
• They do not require written or verbal responses.
• Example: Kohs’ Block Design Test, where blocks are arranged to match a given design.
• These tests are useful across different cultures because language is not needed.

• Intelligence tests can be misused if not administered by trained psychologists.
• Poor test scores may create stigma and lower a child’s confidence and self-respect.
• Biased tests may unfairly disadvantage children from lower socio-economic backgrounds.
• Intelligence tests do not measure creativity, practical skills, or overall life success.
• Therefore, intelligence tests should be used carefully and interpreted by trained experts.

• Intelligence testing in India began in the 1930s with S.M. Mohsin, who developed a Hindi intelligence test.
• Indian psychologists like C.H. Rice and Mahalanobis standardised Binet’s test in regional languages such as Urdu, Punjabi, and Bengali.
• Many Western intelligence tests (e.g., RPM, WAIS, Kohs’ Block Design) were adapted and standardised for Indian populations.
• Long and Mehta listed 103 intelligence tests available in India in different languages.
• NCERT’s National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) documents and reviews Indian intelligence tests.
• Popular Indian-developed tests include Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests and the Bihar Test of Intelligence.

• Culture Shapes Intelligence – Intelligence develops within a cultural context and helps individuals adapt to their environment.
• Vygotsky’s View – Culture influences higher mental functions like thinking and problem-solving, while basic functions are universal.
• Technological Intelligence – In advanced societies, reasoning, speed, abstraction, and achievement are valued as signs of intelligence.
• Non-Western Perspective – Many Asian and African cultures value social skills, self-reflection, and collectivistic orientation along with cognitive ability.
• Sternberg’s View – Practical or contextual intelligence shows that intelligence is influenced by culture.
• Indian Concept of Intelligence (Buddhi) – Intelligence is seen as holistic, including cognitive, emotional, motivational, and moral aspects.
• Facets in Indian Tradition – Intelligence includes cognitive competence, social responsibility, emotional control, and entrepreneurial qualities like persistence and hard work.

• Emotional Intelligence is the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions and others' emotions.
• High EI traits include being calm, patient, independent, optimistic, and emotionally stable.
• The Ability Model follows four steps: Perceive, Use, Understand, and Manage emotions.
• EI matters more than IQ for success in relationships, work, and mental well-being.
• Benefits of high EI include better mental health, teamwork, empathy, and resilience.

• Meaning – Aptitude refers to special ability in a particular field and indicates a person’s potential to learn specific skills after training.
• Difference from Intelligence – Intelligence measures general ability, while aptitude measures specific abilities like mechanical, musical, or clerical skills.
• Role of Interest – Success in any field requires both aptitude (ability) and interest (preference); one without the other leads to poor results.
• Types of Aptitude Tests – There are independent aptitude tests (e.g., mechanical, clerical, numerical) and multiple aptitude test batteries.
• Popular Test Batteries – Examples include DAT, GATB, and ASVAB; DAT is widely used in education and has an Indian adaptation.
• Use of Aptitude Tests – They help predict future performance and guide career selection.

• Creativity is the ability to produce original, novel, and useful ideas or products.
• It is not limited to famous people; it can be shown in everyday activities as well as in great achievements.
• Main features of creativity include originality, flexibility, novelty, usefulness, and divergent thinking.
• Creativity and intelligence are related but different; intelligence involves convergent thinking, while creativity involves divergent thinking.
• A high IQ does not always mean high creativity, though a minimum level of intelligence is needed for creative work.
• Creativity tests are open-ended and allow many answers, while intelligence tests are close-ended and usually have one correct answer.