Topics
Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
- Totalitarian and Authoritarian States
- Liberal Democratic State
- Unitary and Federal States
- Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government (U.K. and U.S.A.)
- Decentralisation in India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
Constitution and Government
Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
- Meaning of Constitution
- Kinds of Constitutions - Written and Unwritten, Rigid and Flexible, Enacted and Evolved
- Amending Procedures
- Conventions - Meaning and Examples with Reference to U.K., U.S.A. and India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
Indian Democracy
Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
- Methods of Election - Direct and Indirect
- Constituency - Single Member and Multi-member
- Universal Adult Franchise
- First Past the Post System
- Minority Representation
- Political Parties
- Kinds of Party System - Single Party, Bi-party, Multi-party System
- Overview of Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
Constitution
Franchise and Representation
Organs of Government: The Legislature
Organs of Government: The Executive
Organs of Government: The Judiciary
Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
- Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures
- Legislative Functions
- The Legislature in India and U.S.A.
- Composition and Powers of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
- Comparison of the Rajya Sabha and the U.S. Senate
- Lok Sabha with the U.S. House of Representatives
- Overview of Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
Fundamental Rights
- What is an Executive
- Functions of Executive
- Discretionary Powers of the President
- Civil Service
- Difference Between the Political Executive and the Permanent Executive
- Political Executive in India and U.S.A. - a Comparative Study
- Powers and Functions of Executive Heads of U.S.A. (President)
- Changing Role of the Indian Prime Minister in the Coalition Era (1996 Onwards) - with Reference to Increasing Role of Regional Political Parties
- Overview of Fundamental Rights
Directive Principles of State Policy
- Introduction and Composition of Judiciary
- Functions of Judiciary
- Conditions of Independence of Judiciary
- Judiciary in India and U.S.A
- Judicial Review
- Principles and Critical Evaluation with Special Reference to U.S.A. and India
- Judicial Activism
- Judicial Restraint
- The Supreme Court
- Overview of Directive Principles of State Policy
Local Self-Government
Democracy in India: Perspective of Challenges Faced
Estimated time: 135 minutes
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Legislature
- The legislature is the law-making organ of the government.
- It formulates the will of the state through discussion, debate and deliberation.
- The term Legislature means a place for making laws; it is also called Parliament.
- A modern legislature has the power to make, amend and repeal laws.
- A strong, representative and elected legislature is an essential feature of a liberal democratic system.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Types of Legislature
- A bicameral legislature has two Houses, while a unicameral legislature has only one House.
- Most big and federal states follow the bicameral system (e.g., India, USA, UK).
- In a bicameral legislature, the lower house is usually directly elected, while the upper house is indirectly elected or nominated.
- Unicameral legislatures are common in small or unitary states and some states within federations.
- China is an exception, as it is a big state but follows a unicameral legislature.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Role of Legislature
- Law-making Functions
- Deliberative Functions of the Legislature.
- Legislature as the Custodian of National Finances.
- Constituent Function
- Few Judicial Functions.
- Ventilation of Public Grievances.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: The Legislature in India: The Union Parliament
- Union Parliament is a bicameral legislature.
- Exercises legislative powers over the Union List, Concurrent List and residuary subjects.
- Lok Sabha represents the people and is the more powerful House; Rajya Sabha.
- Law-making power is exercised by the President-in-Parliament.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Salient Features of Union Parliament
- President’s Role: The President is not a member of Parliament but is an essential part, as laws require presidential assent.
- Bicameral Legislature: Parliament consists of two Houses—Lok Sabha (directly elected, more powerful) and Rajya Sabha (indirectly elected, represents states).
- Limited Authority: Parliament is not sovereign; it functions under the Constitution and is subject to judicial review.
- Unequal Powers: Lok Sabha has greater powers than Rajya Sabha, especially over finance and the Council of Ministers.
- Nominated Members: The President nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from fields like art, science, and social service.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: The Lok Sabha (The House of the People)
- Position: Lok Sabha is the lower and most powerful House, representing the people.
- Composition: It has 543 elected members; maximum strength is 550.
- Election: Members are directly elected by universal adult franchise.
- Qualifications: A member must be an Indian citizen, at least 25 years old, and legally qualified.
- Tenure: Normal term is five years, but it can be dissolved earlier or extended during an emergency.
- Sessions & Quorum: Sessions are called by the President; one-tenth members form the quorum.
- Presiding Officers & Privileges: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker preside; members enjoy parliamentary privileges.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers and Functions of Lok Sabha
- Legislative: Lok Sabha dominates law-making and joint sittings.
- Executive: The Council of Ministers is responsible to it; it can pass a no-confidence motion.
- Financial: Money Bills originate here; it controls Union finances.
- Judicial: It takes part in impeachment and removal of high officials.
- Constitutional & Emergency: It amends the Constitution, approves Emergencies, and elects key authorities.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Legislative Control over Executive
- Executive Responsibility: The Council of Ministers is responsible to Parliament and must resign if it loses majority support.
- Parliamentary Devices: Control is exercised through questions, motions, and debates.
- Financial & Committee Control: Parliament controls finances and oversees the Executive through committees.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: The Upper House of Union Parliament - The Rajya Sabha
- Position: Rajya Sabha is the Upper House representing the States.
- Composition: It has a maximum of 250 members, including 12 nominated by the President.
- Election: Members are indirectly elected by State Assemblies through PR–STV.
- Qualifications: A member must be an Indian citizen, at least 30 years old, and legally qualified.
- Tenure: It is a permanent House with six-year terms; one-third retire every two years.
- Sessions & Quorum: Sessions are called by the President; one-tenth members form the quorum.
- Chairman & Privileges: The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman; members enjoy parliamentary privileges.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers and Functions of the Rajya Sabha
- Legislative: Rajya Sabha has equal power in ordinary law-making; disputes are settled by joint sitting.
- Financial: It cannot introduce Money Bills and can delay them for 14 days.
- Executive: Ministers are accountable to Lok Sabha, but Rajya Sabha can question and criticise them.
- Constitutional & Judicial: It participates in constitutional amendments, elections, and impeachment.
- Special Powers: It can nationalise State subjects, create All-India Services, and approve Emergency when Lok Sabha is dissolved.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Several Equal Powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
- Passing of Ordinary Bills.
- Passing of Constitutional Amendments.
- Equal Impeachment Powers.
- Equal Electoral Powers.
- Equal Power to consider Reports.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Superiority of the Lok Sabha over Rajya Sabha
- Superiority in Financial Matters: Money Bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha can delay them for a maximum of 14 days.
- Control over Executive: The Council of Ministers is responsible only to the Lok Sabha, which alone can remove the government by a no-confidence motion.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Some Exclusive Powers and Functions of The Rajya Sabha
- Power of Declaring any State Subject as a subject of National Importance.
- Power of Creation or Abolition of any All India Service.
- Power of the Rajya Sabha to approve an Emergency Declaration when the Lok Sabha stands dissolved.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Legislature in the USA - The US Congress
- The Legislature of the USA is called the U.S. Congress, established under Article I of the U.S. Constitution.
- The Congress is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House).
- The House of Representatives is directly elected by the people, has 435 members, and a two-year term.
- The Senate represents the states equally, with 100 members (2 from each state) and a six-year term; it is a permanent body.
- The Vice-President of the USA is the ex-officio Chairman of the Senate, and the Congress holds the main law-making powers of the federation.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers Functions of the U.S. Congress
- Legislative Powers: The legislative powers of Congress can be classified as: Delegated Powers, Implied Powers and Concurrent Powers.
- Executive Powers.
- Financial Powers.
- Judicial Functions.
- Constituent Powers.
- Electoral Powers.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Position of the US congress in the Political System of USA
- The US Congress is the chief law-making and financial authority of the federation.
- It checks the President through impeachment, amendments, and control over finances.
- In practice, presidential powers, vetoes, and judicial review have reduced its dominance.
- Despite limits, Congress remains a prestigious and powerful institution, though weaker than the President.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: The US House of Representative - (The Lower House of US Congress
- Composition: The House has 435 directly elected members, representing people based on population.
- Qualifications: A member must be a US citizen, 25 years old, with 7 years’ residence, and belong to the district.
- Election: Members are elected by direct election, secret ballot, and universal adult suffrage (18+).
- Tenure: Members serve a 2-year term and can be re-elected; Congress meets at least once a year.
- Privileges & Quorum: Members enjoy freedom of speech and immunity from arrest; 218 members form the quorum.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers and Functions of the Speaker of House of Representatives
- Chairman of the meetings of the House.
- Conducting of Debates.
- To maintain Discipline and Decorum in the House.
- To interpret and Apply Rules.
- Role as a Party Leader.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Position of the Speaker of US House of Representatives
- Speaker of the US House remains a strong and influential authority
- As the leader of the majority party and in the absence of the executive in the House, the Speaker exercises significant control over proceedings.
- Speaker acts as a party leader rather than an impartial presiding officer.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers and Functions of the US House of Representative
- Legislative Powers.
- Financial Powers.
- Constituent Powers.
- Some Executive Functions.
- Judicial Functions.
- Electoral Functions.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Position of the US House of Representatives
- US House of Representatives is less powerful than the Senate.
- The Senate dominates in key areas like Money Bills, appointments, treaty approval, and conflict resolution.
- Real importance of the House lies in its role as the true representative of national public opinion.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Composition and Organisation of US Senate
- Equal Representation: Each state sends 2 Senators, regardless of size or population.
- Composition: The Senate has 100 members (50 states × 2); equal state representation is unamendable.
- Qualifications: A Senator must be a US citizen, 30 years old, with 9 years’ residence, and an inhabitant of the state.
- Election & Tenure: Senators are directly elected for a 6-year term; one-third retire every two years.
- Powers & Privileges: Senators enjoy freedom of speech; filibuster is used to delay or block legislation.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Powers and Functions of the Senate
Special Powers or the Unique Powers of the Senate:
- Senate's Role in Appointment-Making.
- Senate's Power to Ratify Treaties.
- Senate as the Court of Impeachment.
Other Powers of the US Senate:
- Legislative Powers of the Senate.
- Financial Powers of the Senate.
- Senate's Investigating Powers.
- Constituent Powers.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Areas Where the Senate Is More Powerful
- Checks the President: Senate approves appointments, ratifies treaties (2/3 majority), and acts as the court of impeachment.
- Dominant legislative role: Though powers are equal on paper, the Senate is more influential in practice.
- Final say on money bills: Senate can amend money bills and finally shape financial legislation.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Comparison of the US Senate with the Indian Rajya Sabha
- US Senate is far more powerful than the Indian Rajya Sabha.
- US Senators are directly elected, while Rajya Sabha members are indirectly elected.
- The US Senate represents equality of states (2 per state); Rajya Sabha representation is based on population.
- US Senate has a decisive role in money bills, whereas Rajya Sabha has only a 14-day delaying power.
- The US Senate can approve appointments, ratify treaties, and try impeachment; Rajya Sabha has limited control.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Factors Responsible for Making the US Senate Strongest
- Small Size.
- Long Tenure.
- Quasi-permanent Character.
- Direct Election.
- A wider representative base of a Senator.
- Special Powers of the Senate.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Comparison Between Indian Lok Sabha, US House of Representative
- All three are lower houses, directly elected, democratic, and represent the people.
- Strength & Tenure:
- Lok Sabha: 545 members, 5-year term, can be dissolved early.
- House of Commons: 669 members, 5-year term, can be dissolved.
- US House: 435 members, 2-year fixed term, cannot be dissolved early.
- All follow Universal Adult Franchise, single-member constituencies, simple majority system.
- House of Commons is the strongest, Lok Sabha is strong but less than Commons, US House is the weakest.
- US House is subordinate to the powerful US Senate, while Lok Sabha and Commons are stronger than their upper houses.
