Overview of Organs of Government: the Executive

• "In a broad and collective sense, the executive organ embraces the aggregate or totality of all the functionaries and agencies which are concerned with the execution of the will of the state as that will has been formulated and expressed in terms of law." - J.W. Garner 
• "In its broadest sense, the executive department consists of all government officials except those acting in legislative or judicial capacity. It includes all the agencies of government that are concerned with the execution of state's will as expressed in terms of law. - Getell 
• "The executive is that branch of government which carries out or executes the will of the people as formulated in law. It is the pivot around which the actual administration of the state revolves." - Gilchrist 
• "The term embraces not only the supreme head of the government, but also the ministers and the whole mass of subordinate executive and administrative functionaries who constitute, the civil service. Thus understood, the executive comprehends the entire governmental organisation, with the exception of the legislature and the judiciary and possibly the diplomatic corps." - Garner 

• "Bureaucracy means the civil servants-the administrative functionaries who are professionally trained for the public service and who enjoy permanency of tenure, promotion within service- partly by seniority and partly by merit." - J.W. Garner 
• "In the larger sense the term Civil Service is used to describe, any personnel system where the employees are classified in a system of administration composed of a hierarchy, sections, divisions, bureau, departments and the like." In the restricted sense it denotes the "body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control." - Willoughby 
• "Civil service or Bureaucracy is a system of administration characterised by expertness, impartiality and absence of humanity." - Max Weber 
• "Bureaucracy i.e. Civil Service as "a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner." - Appleby 
• "A professional body of officials permanent, paid and skilled." - SE Finer  

• Nominal & Real Executive: The President is the nominal head, while the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are the real executive.
• President’s Role: The President acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (Article 74).
• Link with Parliament: The Council of Ministers is formed from Parliament and is responsible to the Lok Sabha.
• Collective & Individual Responsibility: The ministry is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, and each minister is individually responsible for their department.
• Parliamentary Control: Parliament controls the executive through questions, motions, budget, and no-confidence motions.
• Majority Rule & Cabinet: The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party; the Cabinet is the real centre of power, with the PM as the most powerful executive authority.

\[\text{Value of vote of an MLA of a State}=\frac{\text{Total Population of State}}{\text{Total number of MLAs of the state Legislative Assembly}}\times\frac{1}{1000}\]

\[\text{Values of the Vote of an MP}=\frac{\text{Total Value of the Votes of all MLAs of all States}}{\text{Total Number of elected MPs of both Houses of Union Parliament}}\]

\[\frac{\text{Number of Valid Votes Polled}}{\text{No of seats to be filled}+1}+1=\text{Winning Quota of Votes}\]

• Presidential Election 2022: Held in July 2022; Droupadi Murmu became the 16th President of India.
• Tenure: The President serves a 5-year term and continues until a successor is elected.
• Removal: The President can be impeached for violation of the Constitution by a 2/3 majority in both Houses.
• Re-eligibility: A President can be re-elected any number of times.
• Succession: The Vice-President acts as President; a new election must be held within 6 months.
• Immunities & Emoluments: The President enjoys legal immunity, cannot be arrested during tenure, and receives a salary and allowances.

• No Money Bill can be introduced without the President’s prior consent.
• The President places the Annual Budget before Parliament every year.
• The President controls the Contingency Fund of India for unforeseen expenses.
• The President appoints the Finance Commission to recommend revenue distribution between the Union and States.

• Types of Emergencies: National Emergency (Art. 352), State/Constitutional Emergency (Art. 356) and Financial Emergency (Art. 360).
• During emergencies, Centre becomes powerful: can direct States, legislate on State List, and modify financial relations. 
• In a financial emergency, the President can cut salaries, control state finances, and reserve state money bills for his consent. 

• Executive Powers: The Cabinet is the real executive; it formulates policies, runs administration, and handles defence, foreign affairs, and emergencies.
• Legislative Powers: The Cabinet controls law-making; most bills are introduced and passed with its support and depend on Lok Sabha’s confidence.
• Financial Powers: The Cabinet prepares the budget, frames fiscal policy, and controls government expenditure.

• Must be a natural-born citizen of the USA. 
• At least 35 years of age. 
• Must have resided in the USA for at least 14 years. 
• Not hold any office of profit.
• Must be of sound mental and physical health. 

• Party Nomination: Major parties nominate candidates through primaries and national conventions.
• Election Campaign: Candidates run nationwide campaigns to gain public support.
• Electoral College Election: Voters elect state-wise electors in November under the winner-takes-all system.
• Electoral College Voting: Electors formally vote for the President and Vice-President in December.
• Result & Inauguration: Congress counts votes; 270 of 538 votes are needed to win, and the President is sworn in on 20 January.