- Territorial representation is a system where the country is divided into territorial constituencies.
- Each constituency elects one or more representatives from among the people living in that area.
- All voters of different classes and professions in a constituency elect a common representative.
- The elected representative represents the entire population of that geographical area.
- It is the most common form of representation and is also known as geographical representation.
Topics
Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
- Totalitarian and Authoritarian States
- Liberal Democratic State
- Unitary and Federal States
- Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government (U.K. and U.S.A.)
- Decentralisation in India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Totalitarian and Authoritarian States, and Liberal Democratic State
Constitution and Government
Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
- Meaning of Constitution
- Kinds of Constitutions - Written and Unwritten, Rigid and Flexible, Enacted and Evolved
- Amending Procedures
- Conventions - Meaning and Examples with Reference to U.K., U.S.A. and India
- Overview of Forms of Government: Unitary and Federal States
Indian Democracy
Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
- Methods of Election - Direct and Indirect
- Constituency - Single Member and Multi-member
- Universal Adult Franchise
- First Past the Post System
- Minority Representation
- Political Parties
- Kinds of Party System - Single Party, Bi-party, Multi-party System
- Overview of Forms of Government: Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
Constitution
Franchise and Representation
Organs of Government: The Legislature
Organs of Government: The Executive
Organs of Government: The Judiciary
Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
- Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures
- Legislative Functions
- The Legislature in India and U.S.A.
- Composition and Powers of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
- Comparison of the Rajya Sabha and the U.S. Senate
- Lok Sabha with the U.S. House of Representatives
- Overview of Indian Constitution the Preamble and Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
Fundamental Rights
- What is an Executive
- Functions of Executive
- Discretionary Powers of the President
- Civil Service
- Difference Between the Political Executive and the Permanent Executive
- Political Executive in India and U.S.A. - a Comparative Study
- Powers and Functions of Executive Heads of U.S.A. (President)
- Changing Role of the Indian Prime Minister in the Coalition Era (1996 Onwards) - with Reference to Increasing Role of Regional Political Parties
- Overview of Fundamental Rights
Directive Principles of State Policy
- Introduction and Composition of Judiciary
- Functions of Judiciary
- Conditions of Independence of Judiciary
- Judiciary in India and U.S.A
- Judicial Review
- Principles and Critical Evaluation with Special Reference to U.S.A. and India
- Judicial Activism
- Judicial Restraint
- The Supreme Court
- Overview of Directive Principles of State Policy
Local Self-Government
Democracy in India: Perspective of Challenges Faced
Estimated time: 155 minutes
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Franchise / Suffrage
- Suffrage (Franchise) means the right to vote in public elections.
- It is the legal right of people to elect their representatives through voting.
- Suffrage is the backbone of democracy
- Through suffrage, people decide who will govern and can change their representatives
- Modern democracies follow Universal Adult Franchise.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Electorate
- The electorate consists of all adult citizens who have the right to vote.
- Not all people, but only those who satisfy age and legal qualifications, form the electorate.
- Participates in elections to choose representatives of the people.
- The electorate is considered competent to elect representatives.
- It includes men, women and transgender persons
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Universal Adult Franchise
- Universal Adult Franchise means granting the right to vote to all adult citizens of a state.
- It applies equally to men, women and transgender persons without discrimination.
- Only a minimum age qualification is prescribed for voting.
- In most democracies, including India, the voting age is 18 years.
- Certain categories like minors, criminals, bankrupts and mentally unsound persons are denied the right to vote.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Main Arguments in Support of Universal Adult Franchise
- Fully in tune with the theory of Democracy.
- Justified on the basis of Right to Equality.
- Ensures greater participation of the people in Politics.
- Less Chance of Revolution.
- Source of Stability and Better Obedience of Laws.
- Means of National Integration.
- Source of Support for the Community.
- Basis for the use of all other rights.
- Symbol of Popular Sovereignty.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: General Uniform Qualifications for Right to Vote (Universal Adult Franchise)
- Only citizens of a state have the right to vote; aliens are excluded.
- A person can vote only in the state of his/her citizenship
- Minimum age qualification is required; in India, voting right is granted at 18 years.
- Mentally unsound persons, criminals undergoing imprisonment, and declared bankrupts are denied the right to vote.
- The state may disfranchise citizens only through law
CISCE: Class 12
Definition: Public Election
“Election can be defined as a system of selection of the representatives of the people through the casting of votes by the voters."
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Public Election
- A public election is the process by which voters choose their representatives through voting.
- Fundamental feature of representative democracy.
- Elections are held at regular intervals
- Elections held before the completion of full tenure are called mid-term elections, and elections held to fill vacancies are called by-elections.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Forms of Election
- Elections are of two types: Direct Election and Indirect Election.
- In a direct election, people directly vote for their representatives, such as MPs, MLAs, and local body members.
- Direct elections create a direct link between voters and representatives, making representatives accountable to the people.
- In an indirect election, people elect an electoral college, which then elects the representatives (e.g., President of India and USA).
- Indirect elections are considered less democratic but are used for high offices to ensure careful selection of candidates.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Features of a Sound Election System
- Universal Adult Suffrage with a minimum age qualification.
- Regular revision of electoral rolls
- Independent and impartial election authority
- Free, fair, secret and transparent voting system.
- One person, one vote
- Secret ballot and simple/relative majority system.
- Regular and periodic elections
- Free political competition
- Effective control over electoral violence and malpractices.
- Political neutrality of bureaucracy.
- Minimum influence of money and muscle power.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Representation
- In a modern democratic state, the government is run by elected representatives of the people.
- This system is called Representative Democracy or Indirect Democracy.
- Representation means acting or standing on behalf of the people.
- The people elect representatives who exercise political power in their name.
- These representatives express and protect the views, needs, and interests of the people.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Forms of Representation> Territorial Representation
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Constituency
- A constituency is a demarcated area or group of voters formed for electing representatives.
- Elections are always conducted constituency-wise, and each constituency is given representation.
- In a single-member constituency, voters elect only one representative (e.g., one MP from one Lok Sabha constituency).
- In a multi-member constituency, voters elect two or more representatives from the same constituency.
- Single-member constituencies are most commonly used, while multi-member constituencies are used in limited cases.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Argument in Favour of Territorial Representation
- It is a simple method of Representation.
- Direct Contacts with the Elected Representatives.
- Source of Unity.
- Easy way of Identification of Constituencies.
- Better satisfaction of the local needs of the Local People.
- More scope for Development.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Forms of Representation> Functional Representation
- Functional representation is representation based on occupation or profession.
- It is different from territorial representation, which is based on area.
- Each profession elects its own representative.
- It aims to provide expert and specialised representation.
- It is difficult to apply in practice and, therefore, not popular.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Arguments in Favour of Functional Representation
- Functional Representation is better than Territorial Representation.
- In tune with the Social Organisation.
- People are more interested is securing their professional interests
- Can lead to better progress.
- Can be a remedy against the defects of Territorial Representation.
- Society in Pluralistic, Functional Representation also stands for Functional Pluralism.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Difficulties Involved in Putting into Practice the System of Functional Representation
- It is very difficult to divide society into Separate Functional Groups.
- Each profession involves several related professions, which are also important and different.
- Can lead to the division of a Legislature into several Functional Groups of Legislators.
- Possibility of increased group conflicts.
- Difficulty in fixing the proportion of seats.
- Problem of giving representation to unemployed and public.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: First Past the Post System
- It is also called the Relative Majority Vote System.
- The candidate who secures more votes than any other candidate in a constituency is declared elected.
- Only valid votes are counted.
- The winner need not secure an absolute majority (50%+) of votes.
- This system is followed in many democracies like India, UK and USA.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Minority Representation
- Democracy requires representation of both majority and minority communities.
- A simple majority vote system may exclude minorities
- Minority representation aims to ensure representation of minorities
- Advocated to correct defects of the majority system
- It focuses specifically on minorities
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Principles of Single Transferable Vote (STV / Hare System)
- Multi-member constituencies.
- One voter, one vote.
- Preference voting
- Fixed quota of votes required for the election.
- Transfer of surplus and unused votes according to preferences.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: List System of Proportional Representation
- Multi-member constituencies.
- One person one vote.
- Each person votes for the list of a particular political party.
- Fixed quota of votes for winning a seat. It is determined as under.
CISCE: Class 12
Definition: Political Party
- "A political party is a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest upon some particular principles on which they all agree." - Edmund Burke
- "Political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which, by constitutional means endeavours to make the determinant of government." - MacIver
- "A political party consists of a group of citizens, more or less organised, who act as a political unit, and who by the use of the voting power aim to control the government and carry out their general policies." - Gettell
- "A political party may be defined as an organised group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who, by acting as a political unit, try to control the government." - Gilchrist
- A political party is "the articulate organisation of society's active political agents, those who are concerned with the control of governmental power and who compete for popular support with another group or groups holding divergent views." - Sigmond Neumann
- Political Parties as "groups organised for the purpose of achieving and exercising power within a political system." - M. Duverger
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Elements of Political Party
- A Fairly Large Group of People.
- Agreement on a Basic Ideology or Ideological Principles
- Organisation/Structure.
- Faith in the use of Peaceful and Constitutional means.
- Promotion of National Interests as the Objective.
- Active Participation in Politics/Struggle for Power.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Role of Political Parties in Democratic States
- Formulation of Public Opinion.
- Agencies of Political Education/Socialisation.
- Leadership Recruitment.
- Interest Aggregation.
- Political Modernisation and Development.
- Role in Process of Formulation of Public Policies.
- Role in Government-making.
- Role as Opposition Parties.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Functions of Opposition in a Liberal Democracy
- Criticises government policies and decisions.
- Presents alternative policies and programmes.
- Keeps the government accountable and transparent.
- Represents and reflects public opinion.
- Prevents misuse of power by the government.
- Participates in legislative debates and law-making.
- Informs people about failures and omissions of the government.
CISCE: Class 12
Difference Between Political Parties and Party System
| Basis | Political Parties | Party System |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Organised groups of people with similar ideas or ideology | Pattern of working of all political parties together |
| Focus | Individual party | Overall structure of parties in a political system |
| Scope | Part of the political system | Broader concept covering all parties |
| Role | Contest elections and seek power | Determines how political power is exercised |
| Example | Congress, BJP, Labour Party | One-party, Two-party, Multi-party system |
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Types of Party System> Single Party/One Party System
- In a single-party system, only one political party holds power.
- Opposition parties are absent or strictly controlled.
- Elections offer no real political choice.
- The ruling party dominates all political activity.
- Common in totalitarian or communist states (e.g., China, the former USSR).
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Merits of One Party System
- Little Scope for Aggressive Party Politics.
- Strong Government.
- Political Stability and Continuity.
- More Suitable for Meeting Emergencies.
- Responsibility can be Easily Fixed.
- Helpful in Nation-building.
- Easy Choice for the Voters.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Demerits of One Party System
- Undemocratic.
- Authoritarian in Nature.
- Unreal Elections.
- Less Political Education for the People.
- Dangerous and Harmful.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Key Points: Types of Party System> Two Party System/BI-Party System
- In a two-party system, two major political parties dominate the political system.
- Power alternates between the two main parties from time to time.
- Other political parties may exist, but they play a minor role.
- This system provides stability and clear choice to voters.
- Examples include the USA (Republicans and Democrats) and the UK (Conservative and Labour Parties).
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Merits of BI-party System
- Ensures Real Majority Rule.
- Easy Choice for the Voters.
- Stable Government.
- Orderly Politics.
- Easy to fix Responsibility.
CISCE: Class 12
Key Points: Merits of Multi-Party System
- Natural for a Society with Socio-Economic-Cultural Diversities.
- More Choice with the Voters.
- Several Alternative Governments can be formed.
- More political education for the people.
- The Nation remains free from rigid groupism.
