Topics
Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation
Themes in Indian History Part 1
Bricks, Beads and Bones: the Harappan Civilisation
- Introduction to Harappan Civilisation
- Subsistence Strategies
- Mohenjodaro: a Planned Urban Centre
- Tracking Social Differences
- Finding Out About Craft Production
- Strategies for Procuring Materials
- Seals, Script, Weights
- Ancient Authority
- The End of the Civilisation
- Discovering the Harappan Civilisation
- Problems of Piecing Together the Past
Themes in Indian History Part II
Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies
- Prinsep and Piyadassi
- The Earliest States
- An Early Empire
- New Notions of Kingship
- A Changing Countryside
- Towns and Trade
- Back to Basics - How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?
- The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence
Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies (c.600 BCE 600 CE)
Kinship, Caste and Class
Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies
- The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
- Kinship and Marriage: Many Rules and Varied Practices
- Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
- Beyond Birth Resources and Status
- Explaining Social Differences: a Social Contract
- Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata
- A Dynamic Text
Themes in Indian History Part III
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE 600 CE)
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments
- A Glimpse of Sanchi
- The Background: Sacrifices and Debates
- Beyond Worldly Pleasures: the Message of Mahavira
- The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment
- The Teachings of the Buddha
- Followers of the Buddha
- Stupas
- “Discovering” Stupas the Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi
- Sculpture
- New Religious Traditions
- Can We “See” Everything?
Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society
- Al-biruni and the Kitab-ul-hind
- Ibn Battuta’s Rihla
- Francois Bernier - a Doctor with a Difference
- Making Sense of an Alien World Al-biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition
- Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar
- Bernier and the “Degenerate” East
- Women Slaves, Sati and Labourers
Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth centuries)
Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. eighth to eighteenth centuries)
Bhakti - Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts
- A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
- Poems of Prayer Early Traditions of Bhakti
- The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
- Religious Ferment in North India
- New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions
- The Growth of Sufism
- The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
- New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
- Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions
An Imperial Capital : Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth centuries)
An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara
- The Discovery of Hampi
- Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans
- Vijayanagara - the Capital and Its Environs
- The Royal Centre
- The Sacred Centre
- Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars
- Questions in Search of Answers
Peasants, Zamindars and the State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. sixteenth seventeenth centuries)
Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire
- Peasants and Agricultural Production
- The Village Community
- Women in Agrarian Society
- Forests and Tribes
- The Zamindars
- Land Revenue System
- The Flow of Silver
- The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’L Fazl Allami
Kings and Chronicles: the Mughal Courts
- The Mughals and Their Empire
- Production of Chronicles
- The Painted Image
- The Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama
- The Ideal Kingdom
- Capitals and Courts
- The Imperial Household
- The Imperial Officials
- Beyond the Frontiers
- Questioning Formal Religion
Colonalism and The Countryside Exploring Official Archives
Rebels and The Raj 1857 Revolt and its Representations
Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives
- Bengal and the Zamindars
- The Hoe and the Plough
- A Revolt in the Countryside the Bombay Deccan
- The Deccan Riots Commission
Mahatma Gandhi and The Nationalist Movement Civil Disobedience and Beyond
Rebels and the Raj: 1857 Revolt and Its Representations
- Pattern of the Rebellion
- Awadh in Revolt
- What the Rebels Wanted
- Repression
- Images of the Revolt
Colonial Cities: Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture
- Towns and Cities in Pre-colonial Times
- Finding Out About Colonial Cities
- What Were the New Towns Like?
- Segregation, Town Planning and Architecture: Madras, Calcutta and Bombay
- What Buildings and Architectural Styles Tell Us
Framing The Constitution The Beginning of a New Era
Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond
- A Leader Announces Himself
- The Making and Unmaking of Non-cooperation
- The Salt Satyagraha a Case Study
- Quit India
- The Last Heroic Days
- Knowing Gandhi
Understanding Partition: Politics, Memories, Experiences
- Some Partition Experiences
- A Momentous Marker
- Why and How Did Partition Happen?
- The Withdrawal of Law and Order
- Gendering Partition
- Regional Variations
- Help, Humanity, Harmony
- Oral Testimonies and History
Framing the Constitution: the Beginning of a New Era
- A Tumultuous Time
- The Vision of the Constitution
- Defining Rights
- The Powers of the State
- The Language of the Nation
Key Points: The Discovery of Hampi
|
Aspect |
Details |
Source of Information |
Time Period |
Importance |
|
Vijayanagara Empire |
City and empire known as the “City of Victory” |
Literary records and traditions |
14th–16th century |
Major political and cultural centre |
|
Fall of the City |
City was sacked and deserted |
Historical accounts |
1565 CE |
Led to decline of the empire |
|
Local Memory |
Remembered as Hampi linked to Pampadevi |
Oral traditions |
Post-1565 |
Preserved memory of the city |
|
Rediscovery |
Ruins identified by Colin Mackenzie |
Surveys and maps |
1800 |
Brought Hampi to scholarly attention |
|
Historical Reconstruction |
Use of inscriptions, monuments and texts |
Inscriptions, travel accounts, regional literature |
19th century onwards |
Helped reconstruct Vijayanagara history |
Key Points: Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans of the Vijayanagara Empire
|
Aspect |
Rayas (Kings) |
Nayakas (Military Chiefs) |
Sultans (Deccan States) |
|
Political role |
Central rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire who claimed supreme authority |
Provincial governors and military commanders under the Rayas |
Rival rulers of neighbouring Deccan Sultanates |
|
Source of power |
Control over land revenue, army, temples and trade |
Grant of territories (amara) in return for military service |
Independent kingdoms with their own armies and resources |
|
Military organisation |
Maintained a large army using cavalry, elephants and infantry |
Maintained troops, horses and elephants from assigned revenues |
Powerful artillery and cavalry, often allied against Vijayanagara |
|
Economic base |
Revenue from agriculture, overseas trade, temples and markets |
Collected taxes from peasants, traders and artisans in their areas |
Revenue from fertile river valleys, trade and urban centres |
|
Relations and impact |
Led expansion and consolidation of the empire but faced succession crises |
Often rebelled and later became independent, weakening central control |
Frequent conflicts and shifting alliances; jointly defeated Vijayanagara in 1565 |
Key Points: Vijayanagara – The Capital and Its Environs
|
Aspect |
Description |
Evidence/Source |
Significance |
|
City layout |
Vijayanagara had a distinctive physical layout with sacred, urban and royal zones clearly demarcated |
City plan, travellers’ accounts |
Shows planned urban development and administrative control |
|
Water resources |
Extensive use of tanks, canals and reservoirs drawing water from the Tungabhadra |
Hiriya canal, Kamalapuram tank, Paes’ account |
Supported agriculture, gardens and urban population |
|
Fortifications |
Multiple concentric fortification walls enclosing city, fields and forests |
Abdur Razzaq’s description, archaeological remains |
Provided defence and ensured food supply during sieges |
|
Roads and gateways |
Well-planned roads linked gates, markets, temples and urban core; gateways had Indo-Islamic features |
Archaeological surveys, gateway structures |
Facilitated trade, movement and controlled access |
|
Urban core |
Contained royal centre, temples, markets, elite residences and religious structures |
Excavations, foreign travellers’ writings |
Reflects political power, economic prosperity and cultural diversity |
Key Points: The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara
|
Aspect |
Main Structures |
Features |
Functions |
Significance |
|
Location and Layout |
South-western part of the city |
Planned royal zone with large enclosures |
Seat of royal authority |
Symbolised political power of the Vijayanagara rulers |
|
Palaces |
King’s palace complexes |
Built of perishable materials, large platforms |
Residence and administration |
Showed separation between sacred and secular spaces |
|
Mahanavami Dibba |
Great ceremonial platform |
High stone base with relief carvings |
Royal rituals during Mahanavami/Dussehra |
Display of kingship, military strength and sovereignty |
|
Lotus Mahal |
Elegant pavilion |
Arches, domes, Indo-Islamic style |
Possibly council hall or leisure space |
Reflects architectural synthesis and royal taste |
|
Elephant Stables and Temples |
Elephant stables, Hazara Rama temple |
Massive domed chambers, sculpted panels |
Housing royal elephants; royal worship |
Demonstrates royal wealth, ritual power and artistic patronage |
Key Points: The Sacred Centre of Vijayanagara
|
Aspect |
Description |
Purpose |
Associated Rulers/Groups |
Significance |
|
Choice of site |
Capital chosen near the Tungabhadra hills, linked to Virupaksha and Pampadevi |
To gain divine legitimacy |
Vijayanagara kings |
Religious sanction strengthened political authority |
|
Sacred landscape |
Hills, shrines and temples already considered holy |
Integration of religion with geography |
Local communities, rulers |
City seen as divinely protected |
|
Temple patronage |
Extensive building and expansion of temples |
Display of royal power and piety |
Kings, nayakas |
Temples became major social and economic centres |
|
Gopurams and mandapas |
Massive gateways, pillared halls and corridors |
Mark imperial presence and ritual grandeur |
Rayas and nayakas |
Architecture symbolised imperial authority |
|
Ritual and state power |
Royal visits, festivals and inscriptions in god’s name |
Link kingship with divinity |
Vijayanagara rulers |
Reinforced ruler’s role as god’s representative |
Key Points: Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars (Vijayanagara)
|
Aspect |
Evidence/Sources Used |
Method/Technique |
What it Reveals |
|
Archaeological surveys |
Surveys by Mackenzie, Archaeological Survey of India, Karnataka Dept. |
Systematic field surveys |
Identified ruins, structures and layout of Vijayanagara |
|
Mapping the city |
Detailed site maps divided into grids and squares |
Grid mapping and measurement |
Helped locate temples, roads, bazaars and water systems |
|
Use of inscriptions |
Stone inscriptions and records |
Epigraphical study |
Gave information about donations, rulers, and buildings |
|
Travellers’ accounts |
Writings of foreign travellers like Paes and Barbosa |
Correlation with material remains |
Provided descriptions of city life, markets and buildings |
|
Reconstruction of plans |
Plans and elevations of temples and complexes |
Architectural drawings |
Enabled understanding of palace, temple and bazaar layouts |
Key Points: Questions in Search of Answers (Vijayanagara Architecture and Society)
|
Aspect Studied |
What Buildings Reveal |
What Remains Unclear |
Sources Used |
|
City planning and layout |
Organisation of spaces, roads, gateways, fortifications |
Everyday movement and access of common people |
Archaeological remains, site plans |
|
Defence and military needs |
Fort walls, bastions, gateways indicate preparedness |
Actual military strategies and troop deployment |
Fortifications, traveller accounts |
|
Power and royal ideology |
Scale, symbolism, placement of royal buildings |
How ordinary people perceived royal symbols |
Sculptures, inscriptions |
|
Labour and construction |
High level of skill in masonry, sculpture, engineering |
Identity, wages, origin of workers |
Inscriptions, comparative studies |
|
Cultural exchange and ideas |
Spread of styles and motifs across regions |
Exact routes of transmission of ideas |
Architecture, literature, traditions |
