Topics
Themes in Indian History Part 1
Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation
Bricks, Beads and Bones: the Harappan Civilisation
- Introduction to Harappan Civilisation
- Subsistence Strategies
- Mohenjodaro: a Planned Urban Centre
- Tracking Social Differences
- Finding Out About Craft Production
- Strategies for Procuring Materials
- Seals, Script, Weights
- Ancient Authority
- The End of the Civilisation
- Discovering the Harappan Civilisation
- Problems of Piecing Together the Past
Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies
- Prinsep and Piyadassi
- The Earliest States
- An Early Empire
- New Notions of Kingship
- A Changing Countryside
- Towns and Trade
- Back to Basics - How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?
- The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence
Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies (c.600 BCE 600 CE)
Themes in Indian History Part II
Themes in Indian History Part III
Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies
- The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
- Kinship and Marriage: Many Rules and Varied Practices
- Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
- Beyond Birth Resources and Status
- Explaining Social Differences: a Social Contract
- Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata
- A Dynamic Text
Kinship, Caste and Class
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments
- A Glimpse of Sanchi
- The Background: Sacrifices and Debates
- Beyond Worldly Pleasures: the Message of Mahavira
- The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment
- The Teachings of the Buddha
- Followers of the Buddha
- Stupas
- “Discovering” Stupas the Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi
- Sculpture
- New Religious Traditions
- Can We “See” Everything?
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE 600 CE)
Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth centuries)
Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society
- Al-biruni and the Kitab-ul-hind
- Ibn Battuta’s Rihla
- Francois Bernier - a Doctor with a Difference
- Making Sense of an Alien World Al-biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition
- Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar
- Bernier and the “Degenerate” East
- Women Slaves, Sati and Labourers
Bhakti - Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts
- A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
- Poems of Prayer Early Traditions of Bhakti
- The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
- Religious Ferment in North India
- New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions
- The Growth of Sufism
- The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
- New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
- Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions
Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. eighth to eighteenth centuries)
An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara
- The Discovery of Hampi
- Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans
- Vijayanagara - the Capital and Its Environs
- The Royal Centre
- The Sacred Centre
- Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars
- Questions in Search of Answers
An Imperial Capital : Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth centuries)
Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire
- Peasants and Agricultural Production
- The Village Community
- Women in Agrarian Society
- Forests and Tribes
- The Zamindars
- Land Revenue System
- The Flow of Silver
- The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’L Fazl Allami
Peasants, Zamindars and the State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. sixteenth seventeenth centuries)
Colonalism and The Countryside Exploring Official Archives
Kings and Chronicles: the Mughal Courts
- The Mughals and Their Empire
- Production of Chronicles
- The Painted Image
- The Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama
- The Ideal Kingdom
- Capitals and Courts
- The Imperial Household
- The Imperial Officials
- Beyond the Frontiers
- Questioning Formal Religion
Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives
- Bengal and the Zamindars
- The Hoe and the Plough
- A Revolt in the Countryside the Bombay Deccan
- The Deccan Riots Commission
Rebels and The Raj 1857 Revolt and its Representations
Rebels and the Raj: 1857 Revolt and Its Representations
- Pattern of the Rebellion
- Awadh in Revolt
- What the Rebels Wanted
- Repression
- Images of the Revolt
Mahatma Gandhi and The Nationalist Movement Civil Disobedience and Beyond
Colonial Cities: Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture
- Towns and Cities in Pre-colonial Times
- Finding Out About Colonial Cities
- What Were the New Towns Like?
- Segregation, Town Planning and Architecture: Madras, Calcutta and Bombay
- What Buildings and Architectural Styles Tell Us
Framing The Constitution The Beginning of a New Era
Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond
- A Leader Announces Himself
- The Making and Unmaking of Non-cooperation
- The Salt Satyagraha a Case Study
- Quit India
- The Last Heroic Days
- Knowing Gandhi
Understanding Partition: Politics, Memories, Experiences
- Some Partition Experiences
- A Momentous Marker
- Why and How Did Partition Happen?
- The Withdrawal of Law and Order
- Gendering Partition
- Regional Variations
- Help, Humanity, Harmony
- Oral Testimonies and History
Framing the Constitution: the Beginning of a New Era
- A Tumultuous Time
- The Vision of the Constitution
- Defining Rights
- The Powers of the State
- The Language of the Nation
Key Points: The Discovery of Hampi
|
Aspect |
Details |
Source of Information |
Time Period |
Importance |
|
Vijayanagara Empire |
City and empire known as the “City of Victory” |
Literary records and traditions |
14th–16th century |
Major political and cultural centre |
|
Fall of the City |
City was sacked and deserted |
Historical accounts |
1565 CE |
Led to decline of the empire |
|
Local Memory |
Remembered as Hampi linked to Pampadevi |
Oral traditions |
Post-1565 |
Preserved memory of the city |
|
Rediscovery |
Ruins identified by Colin Mackenzie |
Surveys and maps |
1800 |
Brought Hampi to scholarly attention |
|
Historical Reconstruction |
Use of inscriptions, monuments and texts |
Inscriptions, travel accounts, regional literature |
19th century onwards |
Helped reconstruct Vijayanagara history |
Key Points: Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans of the Vijayanagara Empire
|
Aspect |
Rayas (Kings) |
Nayakas (Military Chiefs) |
Sultans (Deccan States) |
|
Political role |
Central rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire who claimed supreme authority |
Provincial governors and military commanders under the Rayas |
Rival rulers of neighbouring Deccan Sultanates |
|
Source of power |
Control over land revenue, army, temples and trade |
Grant of territories (amara) in return for military service |
Independent kingdoms with their own armies and resources |
|
Military organisation |
Maintained a large army using cavalry, elephants and infantry |
Maintained troops, horses and elephants from assigned revenues |
Powerful artillery and cavalry, often allied against Vijayanagara |
|
Economic base |
Revenue from agriculture, overseas trade, temples and markets |
Collected taxes from peasants, traders and artisans in their areas |
Revenue from fertile river valleys, trade and urban centres |
|
Relations and impact |
Led expansion and consolidation of the empire but faced succession crises |
Often rebelled and later became independent, weakening central control |
Frequent conflicts and shifting alliances; jointly defeated Vijayanagara in 1565 |
Key Points: Vijayanagara – The Capital and Its Environs
|
Aspect |
Description |
Evidence/Source |
Significance |
|
City layout |
Vijayanagara had a distinctive physical layout with sacred, urban and royal zones clearly demarcated |
City plan, travellers’ accounts |
Shows planned urban development and administrative control |
|
Water resources |
Extensive use of tanks, canals and reservoirs drawing water from the Tungabhadra |
Hiriya canal, Kamalapuram tank, Paes’ account |
Supported agriculture, gardens and urban population |
|
Fortifications |
Multiple concentric fortification walls enclosing city, fields and forests |
Abdur Razzaq’s description, archaeological remains |
Provided defence and ensured food supply during sieges |
|
Roads and gateways |
Well-planned roads linked gates, markets, temples and urban core; gateways had Indo-Islamic features |
Archaeological surveys, gateway structures |
Facilitated trade, movement and controlled access |
|
Urban core |
Contained royal centre, temples, markets, elite residences and religious structures |
Excavations, foreign travellers’ writings |
Reflects political power, economic prosperity and cultural diversity |
Key Points: The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara
|
Aspect |
Main Structures |
Features |
Functions |
Significance |
|
Location and Layout |
South-western part of the city |
Planned royal zone with large enclosures |
Seat of royal authority |
Symbolised political power of the Vijayanagara rulers |
|
Palaces |
King’s palace complexes |
Built of perishable materials, large platforms |
Residence and administration |
Showed separation between sacred and secular spaces |
|
Mahanavami Dibba |
Great ceremonial platform |
High stone base with relief carvings |
Royal rituals during Mahanavami/Dussehra |
Display of kingship, military strength and sovereignty |
|
Lotus Mahal |
Elegant pavilion |
Arches, domes, Indo-Islamic style |
Possibly council hall or leisure space |
Reflects architectural synthesis and royal taste |
|
Elephant Stables and Temples |
Elephant stables, Hazara Rama temple |
Massive domed chambers, sculpted panels |
Housing royal elephants; royal worship |
Demonstrates royal wealth, ritual power and artistic patronage |
Key Points: The Sacred Centre of Vijayanagara
|
Aspect |
Description |
Purpose |
Associated Rulers/Groups |
Significance |
|
Choice of site |
Capital chosen near the Tungabhadra hills, linked to Virupaksha and Pampadevi |
To gain divine legitimacy |
Vijayanagara kings |
Religious sanction strengthened political authority |
|
Sacred landscape |
Hills, shrines and temples already considered holy |
Integration of religion with geography |
Local communities, rulers |
City seen as divinely protected |
|
Temple patronage |
Extensive building and expansion of temples |
Display of royal power and piety |
Kings, nayakas |
Temples became major social and economic centres |
|
Gopurams and mandapas |
Massive gateways, pillared halls and corridors |
Mark imperial presence and ritual grandeur |
Rayas and nayakas |
Architecture symbolised imperial authority |
|
Ritual and state power |
Royal visits, festivals and inscriptions in god’s name |
Link kingship with divinity |
Vijayanagara rulers |
Reinforced ruler’s role as god’s representative |
Key Points: Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars (Vijayanagara)
|
Aspect |
Evidence/Sources Used |
Method/Technique |
What it Reveals |
|
Archaeological surveys |
Surveys by Mackenzie, Archaeological Survey of India, Karnataka Dept. |
Systematic field surveys |
Identified ruins, structures and layout of Vijayanagara |
|
Mapping the city |
Detailed site maps divided into grids and squares |
Grid mapping and measurement |
Helped locate temples, roads, bazaars and water systems |
|
Use of inscriptions |
Stone inscriptions and records |
Epigraphical study |
Gave information about donations, rulers, and buildings |
|
Travellers’ accounts |
Writings of foreign travellers like Paes and Barbosa |
Correlation with material remains |
Provided descriptions of city life, markets and buildings |
|
Reconstruction of plans |
Plans and elevations of temples and complexes |
Architectural drawings |
Enabled understanding of palace, temple and bazaar layouts |
Key Points: Questions in Search of Answers (Vijayanagara Architecture and Society)
|
Aspect Studied |
What Buildings Reveal |
What Remains Unclear |
Sources Used |
|
City planning and layout |
Organisation of spaces, roads, gateways, fortifications |
Everyday movement and access of common people |
Archaeological remains, site plans |
|
Defence and military needs |
Fort walls, bastions, gateways indicate preparedness |
Actual military strategies and troop deployment |
Fortifications, traveller accounts |
|
Power and royal ideology |
Scale, symbolism, placement of royal buildings |
How ordinary people perceived royal symbols |
Sculptures, inscriptions |
|
Labour and construction |
High level of skill in masonry, sculpture, engineering |
Identity, wages, origin of workers |
Inscriptions, comparative studies |
|
Cultural exchange and ideas |
Spread of styles and motifs across regions |
Exact routes of transmission of ideas |
Architecture, literature, traditions |
