Chemistry (Theory) Class 12 ISC (Science) CISCE Topics and Syllabus

• Vapour Pressure of Liquid 
  • Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions 
    • Raoult's Law
• Raoult'S Law and Colligative Properties 
  • Intensive property 

    definition and examples

  • Extensive Property 

    definition and examples

  • Azeotropic Mixtures – Definition, Types and Examples 
  • Solubility of Gases in Liquids 

    Numericals

• Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions 
  • Ideal Solutions
  • Non-ideal Solutions

  • Non-ideal solutions - positive deviation from Rauolt's Law
  • Non-ideal solutions - negative deviation from Rauolt's Law

  • Factors responsible for deviation from Raoult’s law

  1. Solute-solvent interactions
  2. Dissociation of solute
  3. Association of solute
  4. Temperature
  5. Pressure
  6. Concentration
• Solubility 
  • Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid 
    • Factors affecting the solubility of gases in liquids
      1) Nature of gas (solute) and liquid (solvent)
      2) Effect of temperature
      3) Effect of pressure
    • Limitations of Henry's law
    • Applications of Henry's law
      1) In the production of carbonated beverages
      2) In scuba diving (deep-sea diving)
      3) At high altitudes

Raoult's law and colligative properties.

Intensive property – definition and examples.

Extensive property – definition and examples.

Colligative properties – definition and examples.

Raoult’s Law – I (for volatile solutes),

                   – II (for non-volatile solutes).

Ideal solution, non-ideal solution. Azeotropic mixtures – definition, types and examples. Solubility of gases in liquids – Henry’s Law, simple numericals.

• Dissociation- Electrolytic Solute 
  • Dissociation- Electrolytic Solute 
  • Meaning of Electrolytic Solute 

    if strong electrolyte

  • Meaning of Electrolytic Solute 

    if weak electrolyte

  • Numericals 

    Dissociation- Electrolytic solute

Dissociation- Electrolytic solute.

Meaning of electrolytic solute – (if strong electrolyte) – the number of particles of the solute in solution is an exact multiple of the number of ions present in one molecule of the solute. Meaning of electrolytic solute – (if weak electrolyte) – the number of particles of the solute in solution is not an exact multiple of the number of ions present in one molecule of the solute but a part of it depending on the degree of dissociation. (This part may be taught after teaching ionic equilibria). Numericals included.

• Relative Molecular Mass of Non-volatile Substances 
  • Relative Molecular Mass of Non-volatile Substances 
  • Relative Molecular Mass of Non-volatile Substances 
  • Determination of Relative Molecular Mass 
  • Determination of Relative Molecular Mass 
  • Depression in Freezing Point 
    • Freezing point depression as a consequence of vapour pressure lowering
    • Freezing point depression and concentration of solute
    • Molar mass of solute from freezing point depression
  • Freezing Point Depression 

    molal depression constant (cryoscopic constant)

  • Freezing Point Depression 

    Numericals

  • Elevation in Boiling Point Method 

    Relative molecular mass

  • Boiling Point Elevation 

    molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant

    • Boiling point elevation as a consequence of vapour pressure lowering
    • Boiling point elevation and concentration of solute
    • Molar mass of solute from boiling point elevation
  • Boiling Point Elevation 

    Numericals

  • Osmotic Pressure and Its Application in the Determination of Relative Molecular Mass 
  • Van’t Hoff- Boyle’s Law 
  • Van’t Hoff- Charles’ Law 

    statement, mathematical form, simple calculations

  • Van’t Hoff- Avogadro’s law 
  • Van’t Hoff 

    Numericals

  • Van’t Hoff Factor for the Electrolytes Which Dissociate and the Molecules Which Associate in Solution 
  • Van’t Hoff Factor 
  • Modification of the Formula of Colligative Properties Based on Van’t Hoff Factor 
  • Calculation of Degree of Dissociation and Association 
  • Van’t Hoff Equation and Its Interpretation 
  • Simple Numerical Problems on Different Methods for the Determination of Molecular Masses 
  • Abnormal Molecular Masses in Case of Electrolytes and in Case of Solutes Which Associate 

Relative molecular mass of non-volatile substances:

(a) By relative lowering of vapour pressure.

Determination of relative molecular mass by measurement of lowering of vapour pressure. Problems based on the above. Experimental details not required.

(b) Depression in freezing point.

Freezing point depression - molal depression constant (cryoscopic constant) – definition and mathematical expression (derivation included). Problems based on the above. Experimental details not required.

(c) Elevation in boiling point method.

Boiling point elevation – molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant– definition and mathematical expression (derivation included). Problems based on the above. Experimental details not required.

(d) Osmotic pressure and its application in the determination of relative molecular mass

Osmotic pressure – definition and explanation, natural and chemical semipermeable membranes, reverse osmosis.

van’t Hoff- Boyle’s Law, van’t Hoff – Charles’ Law, van’t Hoff - Avogadro’s law.

Problems based on the above. Experimental details not required.

(e) van’t Hoff factor.

van’t Hoff factor for the electrolytes which dissociate and the molecules which associate in solution. Modification of the formula of colligative properties based on van’t Hoff factor. Simple problems. Calculation of degree of dissociation and association. Experimental details not required.

(f) van’t Hoff equation and its interpretation.

Self-explanatory.

(g) Simple numerical problems on different methods mentioned above for the determination of molecular masses. Abnormal molecular masses in case of electrolytes and in case of solutes which associate.

Self-explanatory.

• Association 
  • Association 
  • The Meaning of Association with Respect to Dimer Formation 
  • Numericals 

    Association

Association.

The meaning of association with respect to dimer formation. Numericals included.

• Normality, Molality 
  • Normality, Molality, Molarity, Mole Fraction, as Measures of Concentration 

    defination with examples

  • Simple Problems Relating Mass, Molar Mass and Mole 

    Normality, molality

Normality, molality, molarity, mole fraction, as measures of concentration.

Definition of the above terms with examples. Simple problems relating mass, molar mass and mole

• Nonvolatile, Non Electrolytic Solute 
  • Nonvolatile, Non Electrolytic Solute 
  • Explanation of Non-volatile Solute and Non-electrolytic Solute with Examples 

Nonvolatile, non electrolytic solute.

Explanation of non-volatile solute and non-electrolytic solute with examples

• Order of a Reaction 
  • Order-reaction (Meaning) 
  • Relation Between Order and Stoichiometric Coefficients in Balanced Equations 
  • Order as an Experimental Quantity 
  • Rate Equation for Zero Order Reaction and Its Unit 
  • Mathematical Derivation of Rate Equation for First Order Reaction 
  • Characteristics of First Order Reaction 
  • Definition of Half-life Period 
  • Derivation of Expression of Half-life Period from First Order Rate Equation 
  • Problems Based on First Order Rate Equation and Half Life Period 

• Meaning.
• Relation between order and stoichiometric coefficients in balanced equations.
• Order as an experimental quantity.
• Rate equation for zero order reaction and its unit.
• Mathematical derivation of rate equation for first order reaction.
• Characteristics of first order reaction – rate constant is independent of the initial concentration, units to be derived.
• Definition of half-life period.
• Derivation of expression of half-life period from first order rate equation.
• Problems based on first order rate equation and half life period.

• Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 
  • Collision between reactant molecules
  • Energy requirement - Activation energy
  • Orientation of reactant molecules
• Collision Theory 
  • Condition for a Chemical change 

    Close contact, particles should collide, heat, light, electricity, pressure, catalysts with examples

  • Collisions to Be Effective 

    optimum energy and proper orientation during collision

  • Energy Barrier Built-up When the Collision is About to Take Place 
  • Activated Complex Formation 
  • Difference in Energy of the Reactant and the Product 

    exoergic and endoergic reactions with proper graphs and labelling

• Condition for a Chemical change – Close contact, particles should collide.
• Collisions to be effective – optimum energy and proper orientation during collision.
• Energy barrier built-up when the collision is about to take place.
• Activated complex formation.
• Difference in energy of the reactant and the product – exoergic and endoergic reactions with proper graphs and labelling

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • Mechanism of the Reaction 
• Mechanism of the Reaction 
  • Meaning of Elementary Reaction 
  • Meaning of Complex and Overall Reaction 
  • Explanation of the Mechanism of the Reaction 
  • Bottleneck principle and slow step 
  • Relationship Between the Rate Expression, Order of Reactants and Products at the Rate- Determining Step 
  • Units of Rate Constant 

• Meaning of elementary reaction.
• Meaning of complex and overall reaction.
• Explanation of the mechanism of the reaction.
• Bottleneck principle and slow step.
• Relationship between the rate expression, order of reactants and products at the rate- determining step.
• Units of rate constant – explanation with suitable examples.

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • Effect of Temperature on the Rate Constant of a Reaction 
• Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 
  • Collision between reactant molecules
  • Energy requirement - Activation energy
  • Orientation of reactant molecules
• Effect of Temperature on the Rate Constant of a Reaction 
  • Meaning of the Symbols of Arrhenius Equation 
  • Related Graph, Evaluation of Ea and a from the Graph 
  • Meaning of Slope of the Graph 
  • Conversion from Exponential to Log Form of the Equation 
  • Relationship Between the Increase in Temperature and the Number of Collisions 
  • Numerical Based on Arrhenius Equation 

• Arrhenius equation – K=Ae^{-Ea/RT .}
• Meaning of the symbols of Arrhenius equation.
• Related graph, evaluation of Ea and A from the graph.
• Meaning of slope of the graph.
• Conversion from exponential to log form of the equation.
• Relationship between the increase in temperature and the number of collisions.
• Numerical based on Arrhenius equation.

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • The Concept of Energy 
• The Concept of Energy 
  • Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions 
  • Concept of Energy Barrier 
  • Threshold Energy 
  • Formation of Activated Complex 
  • Effect of Catalyst on Activation Energy and Reaction Rate 
• Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction 
  • Activation energy
  • Arrhenius equation
  • Most probable kinetic energy
  • Effect of Catalyst

• Exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• Concept of energy barrier.
• Threshold and activation energy.
• Formation of activated complex.
• Effect of catalyst on activation energy and reaction rate.

• Catalyst 
  • Catalyst Defination 
  • Types of Catalyst 

    positive and negative

  • Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalyst 

    based on the state of the reactant and the catalyst

  • Elementary Treatment of Intermediate Compound Formation Theory with Examples 
  • Adsorption Theory 
  • Characteristics of a Catalyst 

    promoter, poison, specificity

  • Surface Area of a Catalyst 
• Effect of Catalyst on the Rate of Reaction 

• Definition.
• Types of catalyst – positive and negative.
• Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyst based on the state of the reactant and the catalyst.
• Elementary treatment of intermediate compound formation theory with examples; Adsorption Theory.
• Effect of catalyst on the rate of reaction – the change in the energy of activation in the activation energy curve.
• Characteristics of a catalyst – promoter, poison, specificity, surface area of a catalyst.

• Meaning of Chemical Kinetics 
  • Scope and Importance of Kinetics of the Reaction 
  • Slow and Fast Reactions 

    explanation in terms of bonds

• Scope and importance of Kinetics of the reaction.
• Slow and fast reactions – explanation in terms of bonds.

• Rate of a Chemical Reaction 
  • Average rate of a reaction
  • Units of rate of a reaction
  • Instantaneous rate
  • Stoichiometry and rate of a reaction
  • Rate law and rate constant
  • Differences between rate and rate constant of a reaction
• Rate of a Reaction 
  • Representation of Rate of Reaction in Terms of Reactants and Products 
  • Determination of Rate of Reactions Graphically 
  • Instantaneous and Average Rate of Reaction 
• Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction 

• Definition
• Representation of rate of reaction in terms of reactants and products.
• Determination of rate of reactions graphically.
• Instantaneous and average rate of reaction

• Law of Mass Action 
  • Statement and Meaning of Active Mass 
  • Explanation with an Example – General Reactions 

    Law of Mass Action

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • Law of Mass Action 

• Statement and meaning of active mass.
• Explanation with an example – general reactions

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • Effect of Concentration of Reactants on the Rate of a Reaction 
• Dependence of Rate on Reactant Concentrations: Rate Law and Rate Constant 
  • Qualitative Treatment 

    Based on the law of Mass Action

  • Statement of Rate Law 
  • General rate equation 

    Rate = k(Concentration of the reactant) ⁿ

  • Relation Between the Rate of the Reaction with Rate Constant with Respect to Various Reactants 

• Qualitative treatment Based on the law of Mass Action.
• Statement of rate law.
• General rate equation – Rate = k(Concentration of the reactant) ⁿ

where k is rate constant and n is the order of the reaction.

Relation between the rate of the reaction with rate constant with respect to various reactants.

• Chemical Kinetics 
  • Molecularity of the Reaction 
• Molecularity of the Reaction 
  • Meaning – Physical Picture 
  • Relation Between Order, Molecularity and the Rate of a Reaction 
  • Differences Between Order and Molecularity of a Reaction 

• Meaning – physical picture.
• Relation between order, molecularity and the rate of a reaction.
• Differences between order and molecularity of a reaction.

• Chemical Equilibria 
  • Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibrium 
• Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibrium 
  • Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium 
  • The Dynamic Nature 

    Law of mass action

  • Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Concentration Kc 
  • Gaseous Reactions 
  • Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Partial Pressures Kp 
  • Relationship Between Kp and Kc 

    Derivation required

  • Characteristics of Equilibrium Constant 
  • Units for Equilibrium Constant 
  • Simple Calculations of Equilibrium Constant and Concentration 
  • Synthesis of Ammonia by Haber’s Proces 
  • Hydrolysis of Simple Esters 
  • The Dissociation of Dinitrogen Tetra Oxide 
  • The Contact Process for the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid 

Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium. The concept of equilibrium constant in terms of concentration or partial pressure to indicate the composition of the equilibrium mixture. The following are the examples: the dissociation of dinitrogen tetroxide, hydrolysis of simple esters, the Contact Process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s process.

• Irreversible and reversible reactions.
• Chemical equilibrium:

- Characteristics of chemical equilibrium.

- The dynamic nature. - Law of mass action.

- Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration Kc.

- Gaseous reactions. Equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressures Kp.

- Relationship between Kp and Kc (Derivation required).

- Characteristics of equilibrium constant.

- Units for equilibrium constant.

- Simple calculations of equilibrium constant and concentration

The following examples should be considered to show maximum yield of products:

- Synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s process.

- The dissociation of dinitrogen tetra oxide.

- Hydrolysis of simple esters.

- The Contact Process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

• Factors affecting equilibrium: Le Chatelier’s principle 
  • Le Chatelier’s Principle 

    Statement and explanation

  • Change of Concentration 
    • Effect of change in concentration
  • Change of Temperature 
    • Effect of change in temperature
  • Change of Pressure 
    • Effect of change in pressure
  • Effect of Catalyst 
  • Addition of Inert Gas 
    • Effect of addition of inert gas

    1. Addition of an inert gas at constant volume
    2. Addition of an inert gas at constant pressure

Le Chatelier’s Principle. Statement and explanation.

Factors affecting chemical and physical equilibria should be discussed in the light of Le Chatelier’s Principle.

- Change of concentration.

- Change of temperature.

- Change of pressure.

- Effect of catalyst.

- Addition of inert gas.

• Acids 
  • Arrhenius, Bronsted-lowry and Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 
    • Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
    • The Brönsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    • Lewis Acids and Bases

Arrhenius, Brönsted-Lowry and Lewis concept of acids and bases, Multistage ionization of acids and bases with examples.

Self explanatory

• Ionic Equilibria 
  • Multistage Ionization of Acids and Bases with Examples 

    Ionic Equilibria

Ionic product of water, pH of solutions and pH indicators.

Ionic product of water – definition, pH, pOH, pKw of solutions; Numericals on the above concepts. pH indicators and their choice in titrimetry.

• Ionic Equilibria 
  • Salt Hydrolysis 
    • Salts of strong acid and a strong base
    • Hydrolysis of Salt of strong base and weak acid (Anionic Hydrolysis)
    • Hydrolysis of salt of strong acid and weak base (Cationic Hydrolysis)
    • Hydrolysis of Salt of weak acid and weak base (Anionic & Cationic Hydrolysis)

Salt hydrolysis – salts of strong acids and weak bases, weak acids and strong bases, weak acids and weak bases and the derivation of pH of the solutions of these salts in water with suitable examples (in detail). Numericals

• Buffer Solutions 
  • Types of buffer solutions
  • Buffer action
  • Buffer capacity and buffer index
  • Henderson - Hasselbalch equation
  • Properties of buffer solution
  • Applications of buffer solution

  1. In biochemical system
  2. Agriculture
  3. Industry
  4. Medicine
  5. Analytical chemistry
• Ionic Equilibria 
  • Buffer Action 
  • Buffer Interpretations 

    based on Le Chatelier’s principle

  • Buffer 

     Numericals

Buffer solutions: definition, examples, action; its interpretations based on Le Chatelier’s principle. Henderson’s equation. Numericals.

• Solubility Product 
  • Solubility product 

    definition and application in qualitative salt analysis (Group II, III and IV cations). 

  • Solubility product 
    • Solubility equilibria
    • Relationship between solubility and solubility product
    • Condition of precipitation
    • Determination of solubility product from molar solubility 

Solubility product: definition and application in qualitative salt analysis (Group II, III and IV cations). Numericals on solubility product.

• Ionic Equilibria 
  • Ostwald’s Dilution Law and Its Derivation 
  • Strength of Acids and Bases Based on Their Dissociation Constant 

    Ionic Equilibria

Ostwald’s dilution law and its derivation.

Strength of acids and bases based on their dissociation constant.

Ostwald’s dilution law - statement and derivation. Strengths of acids and bases based on their dissociation constant; problems based on the Ostwald’s dilution law.

• Ionization of Acids and Bases 
  • Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases 
• Ionic Equilibria 
  • Common Ion Effect Example 

    acetic acid and Sodium acetate; ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride

Common ion effect – definition, examples (acetic acid and Sodium acetate; ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride), applications in salt analysis.

• Applications of Electrolysis 
  • Faraday’S Laws of Electrolysis 
  • Coulometer 
  • Faraday’s 1st Law of Electrolysis 

    Statement, mathematical form

  • Faraday’s 1st Law of Electrolysis 

    Numericals

  • Faraday’s 2nd Law of Electrolysis 

    Simple problems

  • Faraday’s 2nd Law of Electrolysis 

    Statement, mathematical form

Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis, Coulometer. Faraday’s Ist law of electrolysis. Statement, mathematical form. Simple problems.

Faraday’s IInd law of electrolysis: Statement, mathematical form. Simple problems.

• Batteries 
  • Primary Batteries 
    • Dry cell
    • Mercury cell
• Galvanic Cells, Mechanism of Current Production in a Galvanic Cell; 
  • Mechanism of Current Production in a Galvanic Cell 
  • Electrochemical Series 
  • Galvanic Cells - Introduction 
  • principle – oxidation reduction 

    Galvanic cells

  • Mechanism of Production of Electric Current in a Galvanic Cell 
  • Measurement of potential 

    Galbanic Cell

  • Single Electrode Potentials 

    Galvaniv cell

  • Electrical Double Layer 
  • Standard Hydrogen Electrode 

    definition, preparation, application and limitations

• Nernst Equation - Introduction 
  • Derivation of Nernst equation
  • Applications of Nernst equation

Galvanic cells, mechanism of current production in a galvanic cell; and electrode potential, standard hydrogen electrode, electrochemical series, Nernst equation.

Galvanic cells - introduction; representation, principle – oxidation reduction. Mechanism of production of electric current in a galvanic cell. Measurement of potential. Single electrode potentials. Electrical double layer. Standard hydrogen electrode - definition, preparation, application and limitations.

(a) Standard electrode potential, measurement of standard electrode potential.

Measurement of standard electrode potential of Zn ++ / Zn0 half cell (using standard hydrogen electrode).

(b) Idea of heterogeneous equilibria on the surface of the electrode. Cell notation.

(c) Factors affecting electrode potential. Factors affecting electrode potential with explanation - main emphasis on the temperature and concentration and nature of the electrode.

(d) Electrochemical series and its explanation on the basis of standard electrode potential. Electrochemical series. Its explanation on the basis of standard reduction potential. Prediction of the feasibility of a reaction.

(e) Numericals based on calculation of emf of a cell from the values of standard electrode potential.

(f) Nernst equation (correlation with the free energy of the reaction).

- Nernst equation with suitable examples.

- Prediction of spontaneity of a reaction based on the cell emf.

- Numericals on cell emf and standard electrode potential of half-cells.

• Electrochemistry 
  • Relation Between Faraday, Avogadro’S Number and Charge on an Electron 

     F = NAe

Relation between Faraday, Avogadro’s number and charge on an electron. F = NAe should be given (no details of Millikan’s experiment are required).

Self-explanatory

• Electrochemistry 
  • Electrolytic Conductance 
  • Kohlrausch's law 

    Numericals

• Electrolytic Conductance 
  • Specific Conductance 
  • Measuring of Molar and Equivalent Conductance 
  • Comparison of Metallic Conductance and Electrolytic Conductance 
  • Relationship Between Conductance and Resistance 

     F = NAe

  • Specific Resistance and Specific Conductance 
  • Cell Constant: Calculation of Cell Constant 

     F = NAe

  • Measuring of Molar and Equivalent Conductance 
  • General Relationship Between 

    specific conductance, molar conductance and equivalent conductance

  • Units, numericals, graph 

    Electrolytic conductance

  • Molar Conductance of a Weak Electrolyte at a Given Concentration and at Infinite Dilution 
• Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions 
  • Variation of Conductivity and Molar Conductivity with Concentration 
    • Variation of conductivity with concentration
    • Molar conductivity
    • Limiting molar conductivity 
    • Variation of molar conductivity for strong electrolytes
    • Kohlrausch's law of independent migration of ions
    • Variation of molar conductivity for weak electrolytes
    • Applications of Kohlrausch's law

Electrolytic conductance: specific conductance. Measuring of molar and equivalent conductance; Kohlrausch's law.

Comparison of metallic conductance and electrolytic conductance. Relationship between conductance and resistance. Specific resistance and specific conductance.

Cell constant: Calculation of cell constant. Meaning of equivalent conductance. Meaning of molar conductance. General relationship between specific conductance, molar conductance and equivalent conductance.

Units, numericals, graph.

Molar conductance of a weak electrolyte at a given concentration and at infinite dilution. Kohlrausch’s Law – definition and numericals.

• Electrochemistry 
  • Batteries 
• Batteries 
  • Primary and Secondary Cells 
  • Lead storage battery 

    structure, reactions and uses

  • fuel cell 

    structure, reactions and uses

Primary and Secondary Cells: Lead storage battery and fuel cell – structure, reactions and uses.

• Concept of Corrosion 
  • Corrosion
  • Corrosion of iron (Rusting)
  • Mechanism of Electrochemical Reaction 

    Corrosion

  • Factors Affecting Corrosion 
  • Corrosion Prevention 
    • Prevention of corrosion

    1. Coating metal surface by paint or chemicals
    2. Galvanization (coating with Zn)
    3. Cathodic Protection

Concept, mechanism of electrochemical reaction, factors affecting it and its prevention

• Organometallic Compounds 
  • Organometallic Compounds 
  • Organometallic Compounds Including Grignard’S Reagent 
  • Preparation and Uses 

    organometallic-compounds

  • Wilkinson’s and Ziegler-natta Catalyst 

Organometallic compounds including Grignard’s reagent, preparation and their uses. Wilkinson’s and Ziegler-Natta catalyst.

• The Nomenclature of Aliphatic Compounds Containing Halogen Atom 
  • Naming the Halogen Derivatives of Alkanes by Using Common System 
  • Iupac System for Mono, Di and Tri-halo Derivatives 

Naming the halogen derivatives of alkanes by using common system and IUPAC system for mono, di and tri-halo derivatives.

• Haloalkanes 
  • Preparation of Haloalkanes from - Alkane and Halogen 
  • Preparation of Haloalkanes from - Alkene and Hydrohalide 
  • Preparation of Haloalkanes from - Alcohol 

     PCl₃, PCl₅ and SOCl₂

  • General properties of Haloalkanes 

    Combustibility, Nucleophilic substitution reactions

  • Reaction of Haloalkanes with - sodium nitrite 
  • Reaction of Haloalkanes with - Silver Nitrite 
  • Reaction of Haloalkanes with - Aq. Sodium Hydroxide 
  • Reaction of Haloalkanes with - Alcoholic Potassium Hydroxide 
  • Uses of Halogen Derivatives of Alkanes in Day to Day Life and in Industry May Be Discussed 

Preparation from:

- Alkane and halogen.

- Alkene and hydrohalide.

- Alcohols with PCl₃, PCl₅ and SOCl₂.

General properties:

• Combustibility.
• Nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Reaction with:

- sodium nitrite.

- silver nitrite.

- aq. sodium hydroxide.

- alcoholic potassium hydroxide.

Uses:

Uses of halogen derivatives of alkanes in day to day life and in industry may be discussed

• Chlorobenzene 
• Chlorobenzene 
  • Preparation from Aniline 

    Chlorobenzene

  • Physical Properties and Chemical Properties 

    Chlorobenzene

  • Nucleophilic Substitution 

    Chlorobenzene

  • Replacement of Chlorine with -oh, -nh2 
  • Reduction to Benzene 

    Chlorobenzene

  • Wurtz-fittig Reaction 
  • Fittig Reaction 
  • Addition Reaction with Magnesium 

    formation of Grignard reagent

• Phenols 
  • Electrophillic Substitution Reactions 
• Polyhalogen Compounds 
  1. Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride)
  2. Trichloromethane (Chloroform)
  3. Triiodomethane (Iodoform)
  4. Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride)
  5. Freons
  6. p,p’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)

  • Environmental effects of polyhalogen compounds

Chlorobenzene.

Preparation from aniline.

Physical properties

Chemical properties:

- Electrophilic substitution (chlorination nitration and sulphonation).

- Nucleophilic substitution

- replacement of chlorine with -OH, -NH₂.

- Reduction to benzene.

- Wurtz-Fittig reaction.

- Fittig reaction.

- Addition reaction with magnesium (formation of Grignard reagent).

- Formula of DDT

• Preparation, Properties, and Uses of the Following: Ethyl Bromide, Chloroform, Iodoform, Haloform Reaction 
• Haloform Reaction for the Preparation of Chloroform and Iodoform from Alcohol Should Be Discussed 

Preparation, properties, and uses of the following: ethyl bromide, chloroform, iodoform, haloform reaction.

Preparation.Properties and uses of ethyl bromide, chloroform, iodoform.

Haloform reaction for the preparation of chloroform and iodoform from alcohol should be discussed.

• Alcohol 
  • Methods of Preparation 

    Alcohols

  • Mechanism of Dehydration of Alcohols 
  • Uses of Alcohols 
    • Uses of methyl alcohol
    • Uses of ethyl alcohol
• Methods of Preparation and Manufacture of Alcohol 
  • Methods of Preparation of Alcohol from Hydration of Alkenes 
  • Methods of Preparation of Alcohol from Direct Hydration, Hydroboration Oxidation 
  • Methods of Preparation of Alcohol from Grignard’S Reagent 
  • Methods of Preparation of Alcohol from Hydrolysis of Alkyl Halides 
  • Methods of Preparation of Alcohol from Reduction of Carboxylic Acids 
  • Manufacture of Methanol by Bosch Process and Ethanol by Fermentation of Carbohydrates 
  • Acidity of Alcohols: Reaction with Sodium 
  • Esterification with Mechanism 
  • Reaction with Hydrogen Halides 

    property of alcohol

  • Alcohol Reaction with Pcl5, Pcl3 and Socl2 
  • Alcohol Reaction with Acid Chlorides and Acid Anhydrides 
  • Oxidation of Alcohol 

Methods of preparation:

- Hydration of Alkenes

– direct hydration, hydroboration oxidation.

- From Grignard’s reagent.

- Hydrolysis of alkyl halides.

- Reduction of carboxylic acids.

Manufacture of methanol by Bosch process and ethanol by fermentation of carbohydrates, chemical equations required (only outline of the method of manufacture, detail not required).

Properties:

- Acidity of alcohols: reaction with sodium.

- Esterification with mechanism.

- Reaction with hydrogen halides.

- Reaction with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2.

- Reaction with acid chlorides and acid anhydrides

- Oxidation.

- Dehydration with mechanism.

Uses of alcohols

• Preparation, Properties and Uses of Ethane-1, 2 Diol 
  • Ethane-1, 2-diol 
  • Ethane-1, 2-diol Preparation from Ethene 
  • Physical Properties, Chemical Properties 

    Ethane-1, 2-diol

  • Oxidation to Oxalic Acid and Reaction with Hcl 
• Preparation, Properties and Uses of Propane-1, 2, 3 Triol 
  • Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol 
  • Preparation from Soap: Saponification 

    Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol

  • Physical Properties 

    Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol

  • Oxidation with Kmno4 and Reaction with Oxalic Acid 

    Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol

• Chemical Properties 
  • Laboratory test of haloalkanes
  • Nucleophilic substitution reactions of haloalkanes
  • Mechanism of S_N reaction
  • Factors influencing S_N1 and S_N2 mechanism
  • Elimination reaction : Dehydrohalogenation

Ethane-1, 2-diol:

- Preparation from ethene.

- Physical properties.

- Chemical properties: Oxidation to oxalic acid and reaction with HCl.

Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol:

- Preparation from soap: saponification.

- Physical properties.

- Chemical properties: Oxidation with KMnO₄ and reaction with oxalic acid.

• Alcohol 
  • Distinction Through Oxidation, Dehydration and Luca's Test 
• Phenols 
  • Phenols 
  • Preparation of Phenol from Diazonium Salt 
  • Preparation of Phenol from Chlorobenzene (Dow’S Process) 
  • Preparation of Phenol from Benzene Sulphonic Acid 
  • Manufacture of Phenol from Cumene 
  • Physical and Chemical Properties 

    Phenols

  • Acidic Character of Phenol 
  • Phenol Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide 
  • Phenol Reaction with Sodium 
  • Phenol Reaction with Zinc 

    Reaction with zinc

  • Phenol Reaction with Acetyl Chloride and Acetic Anhydride 
  • Phenol Reaction with Phosphorus Penta Chloride 
  • Bromination, Nitration and Sulphonation (Electrophilic Substitution Reactions) 
  • Reimer 

    Phenol

  • Tiemann Reaction Test for Phenol 
  • Fecl3 Test, Azo Dye Test 
• Chemical Properties of Phenol 
  • Chemical Properties of Phenol

  1. Reactions involving cleavage of O-H bond: Reaction with metals, Esterification, Acetylation
  2. Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions of phenol
     (i) Nitration
     (ii) Halogenation (bromination)
  3. Kolbe's reaction
  4. Reimer-Tiemann reaction
  5. Reaction of phenol with zinc dust
  6. Catalytic hydrogenation
  7. Oxidation reaction

  • Distinguishing test between alcohols and phenols
  • Differentiation between alcohols and phenols

v) Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. Distinction through oxidation, dehydration and Lucas’ Test.

• Phenol

Preparation of phenol from diazonium salt, chlorobenzene (Dow’s process) and from benzene sulphonic acid.

Manufacture from Cumene.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Acidic character of phenol.

- Reaction with sodium hydroxide.

- Reaction with sodium.

- Reaction with zinc.

- Reaction with acetyl chloride and acetic anhydride.

- Reaction with phosphorus penta chloride.

- Bromination, nitration and sulphonation (Electrophilic substitution reactions).

- Kolbe’s reaction (formation of salicylic acid).

- Reimer

– Tiemann reaction Test for phenol

– FeCl3 test, azo dye test.

• Alcohol 
  • Classification into Monohydric, Dihydric and Polyhydric Alcohols 
  • Structure of Alcohols 
  • Distinction Between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols 
  • Physical and Chemical Properties 

    alcohol

• Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 
  • Nomenclature 

Classification into monohydric, dihydric and polyhydric alcohols, general formulae, structure and nomenclature of alcohols. Difference between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols in terms of structure, physical properties and chemical properties.

• Alcohol 
  • Conversion of One Alcohol into Another 

Conversion of one alcohol into another. Self-explanatory.

• Introduction of Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 
• Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones 
  • Methods for the preparation of aldehydes and ketones

  1. By oxidation of alcohols
  2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols
  3. From hydrocarbons
     (i) By ozonolysis of alkenes
     (ii) By hydration of alkynes
• Aldehydes and Ketones 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Alcohol 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Alkenes (Ozonolysis) 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Alkynes (Hydration) 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Calcium Salt of Carboxylic Acids 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Nitriles (Stephen Reaction, Grignard’s Reagent) 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Esters 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones From acid chlorides 

    Rosenmund’s reduction, reaction with dialkyl cadmium

  • Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones - Nucleophilic Addition Reactions 
    1. Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions
    2. Reactivity
    3. Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and nucleophilic addition-elimination reactions
       (a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
       (b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite
       (c) Addition of Grignard reagents
       (d) Addition of alcohols
       (e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives
  • Reactions with Ammonia, Hydroxylamine, Hydrazine and Phenyl Hydrazine 

    aldehydes and ketones

  • Oxidation Reactions 

    aldehydes and ketones

  • Reduction to Alcohol and Alkanes 

    Clemmensen’s reduction and Wolff-Kishner reduction, Red phosphorus and HI.

  • Base Catalysed Reactions 

    Aldol, cross Aldol condensation, Cannizzaro’s reaction

  • Iodoform Reaction 
  • Difference Between Formaldehyde and Acetaldehyde 
  • Difference Between Aldehydes and Ketones 
  • Lab Preparation from Toluene, Oxidation by Chromyl Chloride 
  • Physical Properties of Benzaldehyde 
  • Chemical Properties of Benzaldehyde 
  • Oxidation and Reduction of Benzaldehyde 
  • Nucleophilic Addition Reaction 

    hydrogen cyanide and sodium bisulphite

  • Benzaldehyde Reactions with Ammonia and Its Derivatives 

    hydroxyl amine, hydrazine and phenyl hydrazine

  • Benzaldehyde Reaction with Phosphorus Pentachloride 
  • Cannizzaro Reaction 
  • Benzoin Condensation 
  • Distinction Between Aromatic and Aliphatic Aldehydes 
  • Uses of Benzaldehyde 
  • Perkin’s Reaction 
• Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones 
• Phenols 
  • Bromination, Nitration and Sulphonation (Electrophilic Substitution Reactions) 
• Physical Properties – State and Boiling Point 

methods of preparation, properties and uses of aldehydes and ketones.

Preparation:

- From alcohol.

- From alkenes (ozonolysis).

- From alkynes (hydration).

- From acid chlorides (Rosenmund’s reduction, reaction with dialkyl cadmium).

- From calcium salt of carboxylic acids.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Nucleophilic addition reactions.

- Reactions with ammonia, hydroxylamine, hydrazine and phenyl hydrazine.

- Oxidation reactions.

- Reduction: reduction to alcohol and alkanes (Clemmensen’s reduction and Wolff-Kishner reduction).

- Base catalysed reactions: Aldol, cross Aldol condensation, Cannizzaro’s reaction.

- Iodoform reaction.

Uses.

Tests: difference between formaldehyde and acetaldehyde; aldehydes and ketones.

• Benzaldehyde

Lab preparation from Toluene, oxidation by chromyl chloride.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Oxidation and reduction.

- Nucleophilic addition reaction (hydrogen cyanide and sodium bisulphite).

- Reactions with ammonia and its derivatives (hydroxyl amine, hydrazine and phenyl hydrazine).

- Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride.

- Cannizzaro reaction.

- Benzoin condensation.

- Electrophilic substitution

- halogenation, nitration and sulphonation.

Test: distinction between aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes.

Uses of benzaldehyde

• General Formula and Structure 

  Ether

• Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 
  • Nomenclature 
• Ethers 
  • Preparation of Ethers 
    • From alcohols by dehydration (continuous etherification process)
    • From alkyl halides (Williamson synthesis)
  • Physical and Chemical Properties of ether 
  • Uses of Ethers 
  • Structure of Ethereal Group 

    ether

  • Preparation from alcohol (Williamson’s synthesis) 

    ether

  • Reaction with Chlorine 
  • Oxidation (Peroxide Formation) 

    ether

  • Ether Reaction with HI 
  • Ether Reaction with Pcl5 

general formula and structure. Nomenclature; preparation, properties and uses of ether (outline, no detail), with reference to diethyl ether.

Ethers: structure of ethereal group.

Preparation from alcohol (Williamson’s synthesis).

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Reaction with chlorine.

- Oxidation (peroxide formation).

- Reaction with HI.

- Reaction with PCl5.

Uses of ether.

• Introduction of Carboxylic Acids 
  • Classification of mono and di carboxylic acids with examples.
• Acids 
  • Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids 
    • Oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes
    • Oxidation of alkyl benzene
    • From nitriles and amides (hydrolysis)
    • From aryl amines and alkyl halides
    • Carboxylation of Grignard reagent
    • Hydrolysis of acyl chloride and acid anhydride
    • Hydrolysis of esters
  • Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids 
  • Preparation of Carboxylic Acids from Nitriles 
  • Preparation of Carboxylic Acids from Grignard’S Reagent 
  • Acidic Character: Reaction with Active Metals, Alkalies, Carbonates and Bicarbonates 
  • Decarboxylation 

    chemical and Kolbe’s electrolytic reaction

  • HVZ Reactions 
  • Tests for Acids: Formic Acid and Acetic Acid 
  • Uses of formic acid and acetic acid 
  • Decarboxylation 

    chemical and Kolbe’s electrolytic reaction

• Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 
• Classification of Mono and Di Carboxylic Acids with Examples 
• Preparation of Carboxylic Acids from Alcohols, Aldehydes 
• Acid Derivatives 
  • Formation of Acid Derivatives 
• Oxalic Acid 
  • Oxalic Acid: Preparation from Glycol and Sodium Formate 
  • Oxalic Acid Reaction with Alkali 
  • Esterification Reaction 

    Oxalic acid

  • Oxalic Acid Reaction with Pcl5 
  • Action of Heat on Oxalic Acid 
  • Oxidation by Potassium Permanganate 
  • Chemical Properties Oxalic Acid 
  • Physical Properties Oxalic Acid 
  • Test for Oxalic Acid 
  • Uses of Oxalic Acid 
  • Substitution of Benzene Ring (Meta Directive Effect of Carboxylic Acid Group) Nitration and Sulphonation 
• Benzoic Acid 
  • Benzoic acid Preparation from benzaldehyde and Toluene 
  • Physical Properties of Benzoic Acid 
  • Chemical Properties of Benzoic Acid 
  • Benzoic Acid Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Carbonate 
  • Benzoic Acid Reaction with Phosphorus Pentachloride 
  • Test for Benzoic Acid 
  • Uses of Benzoic Acid 
• Esterification reaction 

  Benzoic acid

classification, general formulae, structure and nomenclature: monocarboxylic acids, general methods of preparation, properties and uses of acids.

Carboxylic acids: Classification of mono and di carboxylic acids with examples.

Preparation:

- From alcohols, aldehydes.

- From nitriles.

- From Grignard’s reagent.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Acidic character: reaction with active metals, alkalies, carbonates and bicarbonates,

- Formation of acid derivatives.

- Decarboxylation (chemical and Kolbe’s electrolytic reaction).

- HVZ reactions. Tests for acids: formic acid and acetic acid.

Uses of formic acid and acetic acid.

• Oxalic acid: Preparation from glycol and sodium formate.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

- Reaction with alkali.

- Esterification reaction.

- Reaction with PCl₅ .

- Action of heat on oxalic acid.

- Oxidation by potassium permanganate.

Test for oxalic acid.

Uses of oxalic acid.

• Benzoic acid Preparation from benzaldehyde and Toluene.

Physical properties

Chemical properties:

- With sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate.

- Esterification reaction.

- With phosphorus pentachloride.

- Decarboxylation.

- Substitution of benzene ring (meta directive effect of carboxylic acid group) nitration and sulphonation.

Test for Benzoic acid.

Uses of Benzoic acid.

• Acid Derivatives 
  • Formation of Acid Derivatives 
  • Laboratory Preparation of Acid Derivatives 
  • Properties and Uses of 

    Acetyl Chloride, acetic anhydride, acetamide, ethylacetate

  • Urea Preparation (By Wohler'S Synthesis) 
  • Properties and Uses of Urea 
  • Manufacture of Urea from Ammonia and by Cyanamide Process 
  • Acid Derivatives:General and Structural Formula 
  • Acid Derivatives: IUPAC Nomenclature 
  • Laboratory Preparation and Uses of 

    Acetyl chloride, acetic anhydride, ethyl acetate, acetamide, urea (Wohler’s synthesis)

  • Manufacture of Urea from Ammonia and by Cyanamide Process 
  • Acetyl Chloride Hydrolysis 
  • Acetylation of Alcohol, Ammonia and Amines 
  • Rosenmund’s Reduction 
  • Formation of Acetic Anhydride 
  • Reaction with Grignard Reagent 
  • Acetic Anhydride - Hydrolysis 
  • Acetylation of Ethanol and Aniline 
  • Acetic Anhydride - Reaction with PCl5 
  • Acetamide - Acid Hydrolysis 
  • Acetic Anhydride - Reaction with Alkalies 
  • Hoffmann’s Degradation 
  • Acetamide Reaction with Nitrous Acid 
  • Acetamide Dehydration 
  • Acetamide Reduction 
  • Amphoteric Nature (Reaction with Hcl and Reaction with Hgo) 
  • Ethyl Acetate - Acid Hydrolysis 
  • Ethyl Acetate - Saponification 
  • Ethyl Acetate Reaction with Ammonia 
  • Ethyl Acetate Reaction with Phosphorus Penta Chloride 
  • Ethyl Acetate Reduction 
  • Urea - Hydrolysis 
  • Urea -biuret Reaction (Test) 
  • Reaction with Hot Sodium Hydroxide (Formation of Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide). 
• Salt Formation with Nitric Acid 
• Aldehydes and Ketones 
  • Preparation of Aldehydes 
    • Preparation of Aldehydes:

    1. From acyl chloride (acid chloride)
    2. From nitriles and esters
    3. From hydrocarbons
       (i) By oxidation of methylbenzene
       (a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO₂Cl₂)
       (b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO₃)
       (ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis
       (iii) By Gatterman – Koch reaction

laboratory preparation, properties and uses of acetyl chloride, acetic anhydride, acetamide, ethylacetate; urea preparation (by Wohler's synthesis), properties and uses of urea, manufacture of urea from ammonia and by cyanamide process.

Acid derivatives:general and structural formula, IUPAC nomenclature, trivial names, laboratory preparation and uses of the following compounds:

Acetyl chloride, acetic anhydride, ethyl acetate, acetamide, urea (Wohler’s synthesis).

Manufacture of Urea from ammonia and by cyanamide process.

Physical properties.

Chemical properties:

(a) Acetyl chloride:

- Hydrolysis.

- Acetylation of alcohol, ammonia and amines.

- Rosenmund’s reduction .

- Formation of acetic anhydride.

- Reaction with Grignard reagent.

(b) Acetic anhydride

- Hydrolysis.

- Acetylation of ethanol and aniline.

- Reaction with PCl₅ .

(c) Acetamide

- Acid hydrolysis.

- Reaction with alkalies.

- Hoffmann’s degradation.

- Reaction with nitrous acid.

- Dehydration.

- Reduction

- Amphoteric nature (Reaction with HCl and reaction with HgO).

(d) Ethyl acetate

- Acid hydrolysis.

- Saponification.

- Reaction with ammonia.

- Reaction with phosphorus penta chloride.

- Reduction.

(e) Urea

- Hydrolysis.

- Salt formation with nitric acid.

- Biuret reaction (Test).

- Reaction with hot sodium hydroxide (formation of ammonia and carbon dioxide).