Chemistry Class 11 PUC Karnataka Science CBSE Topics and Syllabus

• Importance and Scope of Chemistry 
• Historical Approach to Particulate Nature of Matter 
• Nature of Matter 
• Properties of Matter and Their Measurement 
  • The International System of Units (Si) 

    Base Physical Quantities and their Units, Definitions of SI Base Units, Prefixes used in the SI System
    

  • Mass and Weight 

    Volume, Density, Temperature

• Uncertainty in Measurement 
  • Scientific Notation 
    • Scientific notation
    • Mathematical operations on numbers expressed in scientific notations - Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction
  • Dimensional Analysis 
• Significant Figures 
  • Order of magnitude
  • Significant figures
  • Addition and subtraction of significant figures
  • Multiplication and division of significant figures
  • Rules for limiting the result to the required number of significant figures
  • Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures
  • Rounding-off in the measurement
• Laws of Chemical Combination 
  • Law of Conservation of Mass 
  • Law of Constant Proportions (Law of Definite Proportions) 
  • Law of Multiple Proportions 
  • Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes 
  • Avogadro's Law 
• Dalton's Atomic Theory 
• Atomic and Molecular Masses 
  • Atomic Mass 
  • Average Atomic Mass 
  • Molecular Mass 
  • Formula Mass 
• Mole Concept and Molar Masses 
  • Mole concept
  • Molar mass
  • Mole triangle
• Percentage Composition 

  Empirical Formula for Molecular Formula

• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations - Introduction 
  • Chemical reactions: Reactants, Products, Chemical equation
  • Stoichiometry
  • Steps for writing balanced chemical equation
  • Mass relationship
  • Calculations based on stoichiometry
    1) Mole to mole relationships
    2) Mass-mass relationships
    3) Mass-volume relationship
    4) Volume-volume relationship
  • Limiting reactant
  • Excess reactant
• Limiting Reagent 
• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations - Reactions in Solutions 
  • Reactions in solutions
    ⇒ Mass percent or weight percent (W/W %)
    ⇒ Mole fraction
    ⇒ Molarity and molality
    ⇒ Parts per million (ppm)
  • Some formulae for calculating the concentration of solutions
• Introduction of Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 

General Introduction: Important and scope of chemistry. Laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules. Atomic and molecular masses. Mole concept and molar mass; percentage composition and empirical and molecular formula; chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.

• Subatomic Particles 
  • Discovery of Electron 
  • Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron 
  • Charge on the Electron 
  • Discovery of Protons and Neutrons 

    Millikan’s Oil Drop Method

• Concept of Atomic Models 
• J. J. Thomson’s Atomic Model 
• Lord Rutherford’s Atomic model 
  • Biography of Ernest Rutherford
  • Reason behind discovery of Rutherford’s atomic model
  • Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment
  • Observations of α-scattering experiment
  • Conclusions of α-scattering experiment
  • Rutherford's model of an atom
  • Some terminologies related to the α- scattering experiment
    1) Number of scattered particles
    2) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension)
    3) Impact parameter (b)
• Atomic Number (Z), Mass Number (A), and Number of Neutrons (n) 
  • Atomic number or Nuclear charge
  • Nucleons
  • Mass number
  • Relationship between atomic number and mass number
  • Representation of element
  • Number of Neutrons (n)
• Atomic Mass 
  • Atomic mass
  • Gram atomic mass
  • Average atomic mass
• Isobars 
  • Isobars
  • Example of Isobars
  • Characteristics of Isobars
• Isotopes 
  • Isotopes
  • Examples
  • Properties of Isotopes
  • Mass of Isotopes
• Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic Model 
• Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation 
  • Wave Theory
  • Salient features of the wave theory of light
  • Drawbacks of wave theory
  • Wave motion
  • Characteristics of wave motion
    1) Wavelength (λ)
    2) Frequency (v)
    3) Velocity (c)
    4) Wave number
    5) Amplitude (A)
  • Electromagnetic spectrum
• Electromagnetic Waves : Numericals 
• Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck's Quantum Theory of Radiation 
• Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels - Atomic Spectra 
  • Emission and Absorption Spectra
  • Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom 
  • Explanation of the line spectrum of hydrogen using Bohr theory
  • Bohr's theory and atomic spectrum of hydrogen
  • Ionization energy
• Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 
  • Dual Behaviour of Matter: De Broglie's relationship 
  • Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 
    • Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
    • Significance of uncertainty principle
    • Reasons for the failure of Bohr model
• Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 
  • Schrodinger wave equation
  • Physical significance of Ψ and Ψ²
  • Radial probability distribution curves
  • Difference between orbit and orbital
  • Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers
  • Shapes of atomic orbitals
  • Energies of orbitals
  • Aufbau principle
  • Electronic configuration of atoms and its representation 
  • Electronic configurations of Cu and Cr

  1. Chromium
  2. Copper
  3. Isoelectronic species
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 
  • Quantum number
  • Principal quantum number (n)
  • Azimuthal quantum number (l)
  • Magnetic quantum number (m or m_l)
  • Spin quantum number (s or m_s)
  • Values of quantum number l and m for n = 1 to 4 principal shell
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Concept of Shells and Subshells 
  • Shells
  • Distribution of electrons in various shells
  • Number and designation of subshells
  • Accommodation of electrons in a given subshell
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 
  • s-Orbital
  • p-Orbitals
  • d-Orbitals
  • f-Orbitals
  • Spherical (radial) nodes
  • Nodal plane
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Energies of Orbitals 
  • Energies of orbitals
  • Effective nuclear charge (Z_eff)
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Filling of Orbitals in Atom 
  • Aufbau principle
  • Pauli's exclusion principle
  • Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Electronic Configuration of Atoms 
  • Electronic configuration
  • General representation of electronic configuration of an atom
  • Valence shell electronic configuration
  • Pictorial representation of electronic configuration of an atom
  • Electronic configurations of the elements with atomic numbers 1 to 30
• Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells 
  • Stability of completely filled and half-filled subshells

  1. Symmetrical distribution of electrons
  2. Exchange Energy
• Structure of Atom Numericals 

Discovery of Electron, Proton and Neutron, Atomic number, isotopes and isobars. Concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie’s relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbital, quantum numbers, shapes of s,p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals- Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principles and Hund’s rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals

• Significance of Classification of Elements 
• Genesis of Periodic Classification 
  • Unitary theory (1815)
  • Law of Triads (1817)
  • Cooke's Homologous series (1854)
  • Law of octaves (1865)
  • Contribution of the German chemist, Lothar Meyer (1869)
  • Mendeleev's periodic law (1869)
• Modern Periodic Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table 
  • Modern periodic law (1913)

  • Development of modern periodic law
  • Modern periodic table (Long form of the periodic table)
    i) Periods
    ii) Groups
• Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Greater than 100 
  • Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements
• Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration 
  • Electronic Configurations in Periods
  • Electronic configuration in groups
  • Electronic configuration in the four blocks - s-Block, p-Block, d-Block, f-Block
• Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements 
  • The s-Block Elements 
  • The p-Block Elements 
  • The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements) 
  • The f-Block Elements (Inner-transition Elements) 
    • Electronic configuration of Lanthanoids
    • Oxidation state of lanthanoids
    • Cause of lanthanoid contraction
    • Oxidation state of actinoids
    • Differences between lanthanoids and actinoids
  • Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids 
• Physical Properties 
  • Atomic Radius 
    • Atomic radius
    • Covalent radius
    • Metallic radius
    • van der Waals radius
    • Factors affecting the atomic radius
      i) Number of shells
      ii) Nuclear charge
      iii) Shielding effect or Screening effect
    • Trends in atomic radius
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
    • Irregularities
  • Ionic Radius 
    • Ionic radius
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
    • Cationic and anionic radius
    • Variation ofsize (radius) in isoelectronic species
  • Ionization Enthalpy or Ionization Energy (IE) or Ionization Potential (IP) 
    • Ionization enthalpy or ionization energy (IE) or ionization potential (IP)
    • Trends in ionization enthalpy (IE)
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
  • Electron Gain Enthalpy 
    • Electron gain enthalpy (Δ_egH)
    • Trends in electron gain enthalpy
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
  • Electronegativity 
    • Electronegativity
    • Factors affecting electronegativity
      i) Atomic size (radius)
      ii) Nuclear charge
      iii) Shielding effect or Screening effect
    • Trends in electronegativity
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
    • Electronegativity values (on Pauling scale) across the periods
    • Electronegativity values (on Pauling scale) down a group
• Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties 
  • Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States 
    • Valence or valency
    • Trends in valence
      i) Across a period
      ii) Down a group
    • Valency of second period elements
    • Oxidation states
  • Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements 
    • Diagonal relationship
• Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity 
  • Chemical reactivity
  • Nature of oxides
• Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Numericals 

Significance of Classification, brief history of the development of Periodic table, Modern periodic law and long form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements- atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valence. Nomenclature of elements with automic number greater than 100.

• Kossel and Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding 
  • Kossel and Lewis theory
  • Lewis symbols
  • Significance of Lewis symbols
  • Lewis symbols and valence of elements
• Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Octet Rule 
• Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Covalent Bond 
  • Covalent bond
    a) Formation of chlorine molecule
    b) Formation of water molecule
  • Types of covalent bonds: Single, Double and Triple bond
  • Conditions for formation of covalent bond
    i) Number of valence electrons
    ii) Electronegativity difference
    iii) Small decrease in energy
• Lewis Structures (Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules) 
• Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Formal Charge 
  • Formal charge (F.C.)
  • Assigning formal charge
• Kossel-lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding - Limitations of the Octet Rule 
  • Limitations of the octet rule

  1. The incomplete octet of the central atom
  2. The expanded octet
  3. Odd-electron molecules
  4. Shape and geometry of a molecule
  5. Other drawbacks of the octet theory
• Ionic or Electrovalent Bond 
  • Ionic bond or Electrovalent bond
  • Mechanism of formation of ionic bond
  • Lattice enthalpy
  • Factors affecting the formation of an ionic bond
    i) Low ionization enthalpy
    ii) High negative electron gain enthalpy
    iii) Large lattice enthalpy
  • Characteristics of ionic or electrovalent compounds
  • Difference between ionic bond and covalent bond
  • Covalent character in ionic bond
  • Fajan's rules
• Bond Parameters 
  • Bond Length 
    • Bond length
    • Factors affecting bond length
    • Types of atomic radii
      i) Covalent radius
      ii) van der Waals radius
    • Average bond length for some single, double and triple bonds
  • Bond Angle 
    • Bond angle
    • Factors affecting the bond angle
  • Bond Enthalpy 
    • Bond enthalpy (Bond dissociation energy)
    • Bond enthalpy for polyatomic molecules
    • Factors affecting bond enthalpy
  • Bond Order 
  • Resonance Structures 
    • Resonance
    • Resonating structures
    • Resonance energy
  • Polarity of Bonds 
    • Polar covalent bond
    • Dipole moment
    • Dipole moments in NH₃ and NF₃
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) 
  • VSEPR theory
  • Main postulates of VSEPR theory
  • Geometry of some molecules
  • Geometry of some molecules
  • Steps to predict the molecular geometry using VSEPR theory
• Valence Bond Theory 
  • Postulates of Valence Bond Theory
  • Interacting forces during covalent bond formation
    i) Force of repulsion
    ii) Force of attraction
  • Formation of hydrogen molecule on the basis of valence bond theory (VBT)
  • Overlap of atomic orbitals
  • Limitation of VBT
• Valence Bond Theory - Orbital Overlap Concept 
  • Sigma and Pi bonds
  • Formation of hydrogen (H₂) Molecule 

  1. Formation of fl uorine molecule (F₂)
  2. Formation of HF molecule
  3. Formation of oxygen molecule (O₂)
• Valence Bond Theory - Directional Properties of Bonds 
• Valence Bond Theory - Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals 
• Valence Bond Theory - Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds 
  • Types of overlap of atomic orbitals

  1. Axial overlap: s-s overlap, s-p overlap, p-p overlap 
  2. Lateral overlap: p-p overlap
• Valence Bond Theory - Strength of Sigma (σ) bond and pi (π) bond 
  • Difference between sigma (σ) bond and pi (π) bond
• Hybridisation 
  • Hybridisation - Introduction 
    • Salient features of hybridisation, Important conditions for hybridisation
    • Types of hybridisation and geometry of molecules
    • Bonding in Ethylene
    • Formation of sigma bond
    • Formation of Pi (π ) bond
    • Bonding in acetylene
  • Types of Hybridisation 
    • sp, sp², sp³, dsp², sp³d, dsp³, sp³d² or d²sp³
  • Hybridisation of Elements Involving d Orbitals 
    • SO₂ molecule
    • PCl₅ molecule
    • Formation of SF₆ (sp³d² hybridisation)
• Molecular Orbital Theory - Introduction 
• Molecular Orbital Theory 
  • Formation of Molecular Orbitals - Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) 
    • Formation of Bonding and Antibonding molecular orbitals (LCAO Method)
    • Difference between Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
  • Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals 
    • Conditions for Atomic orbital (AO) to form Molecular orbital (MO)
    • Difference between AO and MO
  • Types of Molecular Orbitals 
  • Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals 
    • Relative energies of M.O. and filling of electrons
  • Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behaviour 
    • Stability of Molecules
      i) Stability of molecules in terms of bonding and antibonding electrons
      ii) Stability of molecules in terms of bond order
    • Bond order
    • Nature of the bond
    • Bond-length
    • Magnetic nature
• Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 
  • Homonuclear diatomic molecules
  • Electronic configuration, bond order, and magnetic nature of some diatomic molecules

  1. Hydrogen molecule (H₂)
  2. Helium molecule (He₂)
  3. Lithium molecule (Li₂)
  4. Carbon molecule (C₂)
  5. Oxygen molecule (O₂)

  • Heteronuclear diatomic molecules
• Hydrogen Bonding - Introduction 
  • Intramolecular Hydrogen Bond
  • Intermolecular hydrogen bond
• Hydrogen Bonding 
  • Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond 
  • Types of Hydrogen Bonding 
    • Types of hydrogen bonding

    1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond
    2. lntramolecular hydrogen bond (Chelation)
• Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Numericals 
• States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids Numericals 

Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules (qualitative idea only). Hydrogen bond.

• Intermolecular Forces - Introduction 

  van der Waals forces

• Intermolecular Forces 
  • Dispersion Forces Or London Forces 
  • Dipole - Dipole Forces 
  • Dipole-induced Dipole Forces 
  • Hydrogen Bond 
• Thermal Energy 
• Intermolecular Forces Vs. Thermal Interactions 
• The Gaseous State 
  • Measurable properties of gases

  1. Mass
  2. Volume
  3. Pressure
  4. Temperature
  5. Density
  6. Diffusion
• The Gas Laws 
  • Boyle’s Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship) 
  • Charles’ Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship) 
  • Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure- Temperature Relationship) 
• Laws of Chemical Combination 
  • Avogadro's Law 
• Ideal Gas Equation 
  • Derivation of Ideal Gas Equation 
  • Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance 
  • Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 
    • Dalton’s law of partial pressure
    • Graham's law of diffusion
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 
  • Kinetic molecular theory of gases
  • Postulates of kinetic molecular theory
  • Kinetic gas equation
  • Calculation of kinetic energy (K.E.)
  • Molecular speeds
  • Types of speed
    a) Most probable speed (u_mp)
    b) Average speed (u_av)
    c) Root mean square speed (u_r.m.s.)
  • Relation between molecular speeds, temperature, and molecular mass
• Behaviour of Real Gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour 
  • Real gases
  • Reasons for deviations
  • van der Waals equation for real gases
  • Effect of pressure
  • Compressibility factor (Z)
  • Effect of temperature
  • Compressibility factor for real gases
  • Pressure-Volume isotherms of Carbon dioxide
  • Difference between Ideal gas and real gas
• Liquefaction of Gases 
  • Liquefaction of gases
  • Critical constants
    i) Critical temperature
    ii) Critical pressure
    iii) Critical volume
  • Isotherms of CO₂
• Liquid State 
  • Vapour Pressure 
  • Surface Tension 
  • Viscosity 
• States of Matter:- Gases and Liquids Numericals 

Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws of elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Gay Lussac’s law, Avogadro’s law, ideal behaviour of gases, empirical derivation of gas equation. Avogadro number, ideal gas equation. Kinetic energy and molecular speeds (elementary idea), deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature. Liquid State- Vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations).

• Thermodynamic Terms 
  • The System and the Surroundings
  • Types of the system

  1. Open System
  2. Closed system
  3. Isolated System
  4. Homogeneous system
  5. Heterogeneous system
  6. Macroscopic system

  • Macroscopic properties of the system

  1. Intensive properties
  2. Extensive properties
• The State of the System 
  • The state of a system
  • State variables or state functions or thermodynamic parameters
  • State function: Initial and final states of the system
  • Path functions
  • Thermodynamic equilibrium and its types

  1. Chemical equilibrium
  2. Mechanical equilibrium
  3. Thermal equilibrium

  • Thermodynamic process and its types

  1. Isothermal process
  2. Adiabatic process
  3. Isobaric process
  4. Isochoric process
  5. Cyclic process
  6. Reversible process
  7. Irreversible process

  • Difference between reversible and irreversible process
• The Internal Energy as a State Function - Work 
• The Internal Energy as a State Function - Heat 
• The Internal Energy as a State Function - The General Case 

  First law of Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics Applications 
  • Work 

    pressure-volume work, reversible processes, irreversible processes. Isothermal and free expansion of an ideal gas

  • Enthalpy, H - A Useful New State Function 
  • Enthalpy, H - Extensive and Intensive Properties 
  • Enthalpy, H - Heat Capacity 
  • Enthalpy, H - The Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas 
• Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆U Measurements 
• Measurement of ∆U and ∆H Calorimetry - ∆H Measurements 
• Enthalpy Change, ∆_rH of a Reaction - Reaction Enthalpy 
  • Standard Enthalpy of Reactions 
  • Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations 
    • Enthalpy of fusion
    • Enthalpy of vaporization
    • Enthalpy of sublimation
  • Standard Enthalpy of Formation 
  • Thermochemical Equations 
    • Heat of combustion
    • Molar heat capacities
    • Relation between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas
• Chemical Thermodynamics and Energetic 
  • Hess’ Law of Constant Heat Summation 
    • Hess's law
    • Experimental verification of Hess's law
    • Applications of Hess's law
    • Born-Haber cycle and Hess's law
• Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions 
  • Standard Enthalpy of Combustion 
  • Enthalpy of Atomization 
  • Bond Enthalpy 
    • Bond dissociation enthalpy
    • Diatomic Molecules
    • Polyatomic Molecules
    • Mean bond enthalpy of C - H bond
  • Enthalpy of Solution 
  • Lattice Enthalpy 
    • Born-Haber Cycle
    • Enthalpy of ionization
• Spontaneity 
  • Is Decrease in Enthalpy a Criterion for Spontaneity 
  • Entropy and Spontaneity 
  • Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity 
• Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium 
  • Relation between standard Gibbs energy change and equilibrium constant

Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions. First law of thermodynamics-internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat, measurement of U and H, Hess’s law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of : bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution and dilution. Introduction of entropy as state function, Second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs energy change for spontaneous and non-spontaneous process, criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity. Third law of thermodynamics- Brief introduction.

• Concept of Equilibrium 
• Equilibrium in Physical Processes 
  • Solid-liquid Equilibrium 
  • Liquid-vapour Equilibrium 
  • Solid - Vapour Equilibrium 
  • Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid in Liquids 
  • Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Gases in Liquids 
  • General Characteristics of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes 
• Equilibrium in Chemical Processes - Dynamic Equilibrium 
• Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant 
  • Law of mass action
  • Law of chemical equilibrium
  • Characteristics of the equilibrium constant
  • Effect of temperature on equilibrium constant
  • Types of equilibrium constant
  • Relation between Kp and Kc
  • Unit of equilibrium constant
• Homogeneous Equlibria 
  • Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous Systems 
• Heterogeneous Equlibria 
  • Equilibrium constant for heterogeneous equilibria
• Applications of Equilibrium Constants 
  • Predicting the Extent of a Reaction 
  • Predicting the Direction of the Reaction 
  • Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 
• Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G 
  • Relationship between equilibrium constant, reaction quotient and change in Gibbs energy
• Factors affecting equilibrium: Le Chatelier’s principle 
  • Change of Concentration 
    • Effect of change in concentration
  • Change of Pressure 
    • Effect of change in pressure
  • Addition of Inert Gas 
    • Effect of addition of inert gas

    1. Addition of an inert gas at constant volume
    2. Addition of an inert gas at constant pressure
  • Change of Temperature 
    • Effect of change in temperature
  • Effect of Catalyst 
• Ionic Equilibrium in Solution 
  • Ionic equilibrium
  • Water-soluble compounds
  • Degree of ionization
  • Factors affecting degree of ionization
• Concept of Acids, Bases, and Salts 
  • Acids
  • Bases
  • Types of acids
• Acids 
  • Arrhenius, Bronsted-lowry and Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 
    • Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
    • The Brönsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
    • Lewis Acids and Bases
• Concept of Ionization of Acids and Bases 
• Ionization of Acids and Bases 
  • The Ionization Constant of Water and Its Ionic Product 
    • Ionic product of water (Kw)
    • Value of Kw
  • Ionization Constants of Weak Acids 
    • Degree of ionization
  • Ionization of Weak Bases 
  • Relation Between Ka and Kb 
  • Di- and Polybasic Acids and Di- and Polyacidic Bases 
    • Ionization of polybasic acids
  • Factors Affecting Acid Strength 
  • Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of Acids and Bases 
  • Hydrolysis of Salts and the Ph of Their Solutions 
    • Hydrolysis of salt
    • Hydrolysis constant
    • Degree of hydrolysis (h)
    • Types of salts and their hydrolysis
• The pH Scale 
  • pH of a solution
  • pH scale
  • Relationship between pH and pOH
  • Approximate pH values of some substances
  • Acidity, basicity, and neutrality of aqueous solutions
  • pK value
  • Measurement of pH of a solution
  • Indicators
  • Titration curves
• Buffer Solutions 
  • Types of buffer solutions
  • Buffer action
  • Buffer capacity and buffer index
  • Henderson - Hasselbalch equation
  • Properties of buffer solution
  • Applications of buffer solution

  1. In biochemical system
  2. Agriculture
  3. Industry
  4. Medicine
  5. Analytical chemistry
• Concept of Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts 
  • Solubility Product Constant

  • Comparison of solubility product and ionic product
  • Different expressions for solubility product
  • Common Ion Effect on Solubility of Ionic Salts
  • Applications of solubility product

  • Common ion effect

  • Solution of weak acid and its salt
  • Solution of weak base and its salt
  • Common ion effect and solubility of a sparingly soluble salt
  • Applications of common ion effect

Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium-Le Chatelier’s principle; ionic equilibrium- ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, ionization of polybasic acids, acid strength, concept of PH., Hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solutions, Henderson equation, solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).

• Classical Idea of Redox Reactions - Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 
  • Oxidation
  • Reduction
  • Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer
  • Oxidizing agent
  • Reducing agent
• Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Introduction 
• Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions - Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions 
  • Metal activity series or electrochemical series
• Oxidation Number - Introduction 
  • Oxidation number
  • Rules to assign oxidation number or oxidation states to an atom
  • Paradox of fractional oxidation number
  • Stock notations
• Oxidation Number 
  • Types of Redox Reactions 
    • Types of Redox Reactions

    1. Combination reactions
    2. Decomposition reactions
    3. Displacement reactions
       a) Metal displacement
       b) Non-metal displacement
    4. Disproportionation reactions
  • Redox Reactions as the Basis for Titrations 
    • Oxidation number in redox reactions
  • Limitations of Concept of Oxidation Number 
• Balancing Redox Reactions in Terms of Loss and Gain of Electrons 
  • Oxidation number method
  • Ion electron method (Half reaction method)
• Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes 
  • Direct redox reactions
  • Daniel cell
  • Standard electrode potential

Concept of oxidation and oxidation and reduction, redox reactions oxidation number, balancing redox reactions in terms of loss and gain of electron and change in oxidation numbers. applications of redox reactions.

• Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 
  • Hydrogen
  • Position of hydrogen in the periodic table
• Dihydrogen 
  • Occurrence of dihydrogen
  • Isotopes of Hydrogen
  • Physical constants of H₂, D₂, and T₂
• Preparation of Dihydrogen 
  • Preparation of Dihydrogen

  • By the action of water with metals
  • By the action of water on alkali and alkaline earth metal hydrides
  • By the reaction of metals like Zn, Sn, and Al with alkalies (NaOH or KOH)
  • By the action of metals with acids
  • By the electrolysis of acidified water
  • Laboratory method
  • Preparation of pure hydrogen
  • Commercial Production of Dihydrogen
    1) From hydrocarbon or coal
    2) Bosch process
    3) Lane's process
    4) By electrolysis of water
• Properties and Uses of Dihydrogen 
  • Physical Properties
  • Physical constants of atomic and molecular properties
  • Chemical Properties

  1. Reaction with metals
  2. Reaction with non-metals
  3. Reaction with metal ions and metal oxides
  4. Reaction with organic compounds

  • Uses of Dihydrogen
• Hydrides 
  • Ionic Or Saline Hydrides 
  • Covalent Or Molecular Hydride 
  • Metallic Or Non-stoichiometric (Or Interstitial) Hydrides 
• Physical Properties of Water 
  • Physical Properties of Water:

  1. Nature
  2. Boiling point
  3. The freezing point of water or melting point of ice
  4. Density
  5. Anomalous expansion of water
  6. Latent heat of fusion of ice
  7. Latent heat of vaporization of water
  8. Specific heat capacity
• Water 
  • Structure of Water 
  • Structure of Ice 
  • Temporary Hardness of Water 

    Boiling, Clark's method

  • Permanent Hardness of Water 

    Treatment with washing soda (sodium carbonate), Calgon’s method, Ion-exchange method, Synthetic resins method

• Chemical Properties of Water 
  • Chemical properties

  1. Dissociation of water
  2. Amphoteric nature
  3. Oxidising and reducing nature
  4. Hydrolytic reactions
  5. Formation of hydrates with metal salts
• Classification of water: Soft and Hard Water 
  • Soft and Hard water
  • Types of Hard water

  1. Temporary Hardness
  2. Permanent Hardness
• Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide 
  • Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)
  • Preparation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)

  1. Merck's. process (Laboratory method)
  2. By the action of sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid on hydrated barium peroxide BaO₂.8H₂O
  3. Industrial method
  4. By redox process

  • Preparation of Deuterium

  • Electrolysis of heavy water

  • Preparation of Tritium
• Physical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide 
• Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide 
• Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide 
  • Chemical properties of H₂O₂

  1. Decomposition
  2. Oxidizing and reducing nature
  3. Oxidizing character
  4. Reducing character
  5. Bleaching action
  6. Storage of H₂O₂
• Storage of Hydrogen Peroxide 
• Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide 
• Heavy Water 
  • Heavy water (D₂O)
  • Preparation
  • Properties of heavy water
  • Reactions
  • Uses of heavy water
• Dihydrogen as a Fuel 

Position of Hydrogen in periodic table, Occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen; hydrides-ionic, covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water; hydrogen peroxide-preparation, reactions, uses and structure; Hydrogen as fuel.

• Group 1 Elements - Alkali Metals 
  • Electronic configuration of group 1 elements
  • Occurrence of group 1 elements
  • Atomic and ionic radii of group 1 elements
  • Ionization Enthalpy
  • Electropositive character
  • Electronegativity
  • Hydration Enthalpy
  • Physical properties of group 1 elements

  1. Nature and appearance
  2. Density
  3. Conductivity
  4. Melting and boiling points
  5. Photoelectric effect
  6. Characteristic flame colour
  7. Atomic and physical properties of group 1 elements

  • Chemical Properties - Reactivity towards air, water, dihydrogen, halogens, Reducing nature, Solutions in liquid ammonia
  • Uses of alkali metals: lithium, sodium, potassium
• General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals 
  • Oxides and hydroxides
  • Halides
  • Salts of Oxo-Acids
• Anomalous Properties of Lithium 
  • Points of Difference between Lithium and other Alkali Metals
  • Anomalous behaviour of lithium
  • Lithium differs from other alkali metals
  • Diagonal relationship of Li with Mg
  • Similarities between Li and Mg
• Some Important Compounds of Sodium 
  • Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda), Na₂CO₃ 10H₂O
  • Sodium Chloride, NaCl
  • Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), NaOH
  • Sodium Hydrogencarbonate (Baking Soda), NaHCO₃
• Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium 
• Group 2 Elements - Alkaline Earth Metals 
  • General characteristics of alkaline earth metals
  • Electronic configuration of group 2 elements
  • Occurrence of group 2 elements
  • Atomic and ionic radii of group 2 elements
  • Ionization enthalpy of group 2 elements
  • Electropositive character
  • Electronegativity
  • Hydration enthalpy
  • Physical properties of group 2 elements

  1. Nature and appearance
  2. Density
  3. Conductivity
  4. Melting and boiling points
  5. Characteristic flame colour
  6. Atomic and physical properties of group 2 elements

  • Chemical Properties - Reactivity towards air and water, halogens, hydrogen, Reducing nature, Covalent and ionic character, Solubility.
  • Distinctive behavior of beryllium 
  • Solutions in liquid ammonia
  • Reducing nature
  • Reactivity towards acids
  • Uses: beryllium, magnesium, calcium, barium, radium
• General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals 
  • General characteristics of some compounds of the alkaline earth metals

  1. Oxides and Hydroxides
  2. Halides - Structure of BeCl₂
  3. Salts of Oxoacids

  • Carbonates of group 2 elements
  • Sulphates of group 2 elements
  • Nitrates of group 2 elements
• Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium 
  • Anomalous behaviour of beryllium
  • Be differs from other alkaline earth metals
  • Diagonal Relationship between Beryllium and Aluminium
  • Reasons for diagonal relationship
  • Similarities between Be and Al
• Some Important Compounds of Calcium 
  • Calcium oxide or Quick Lime (CaO)
  • Uses of lime
  • Calcium Hydroxide (Slaked lime), Ca(OH)₂
  • Uses of slaked lime
  • Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃) or limestone
  • Uses of limestone
  • Calcium Sulphate (Plaster of Paris), CaSO₄.½ H₂O
  • Uses of plaster of Paris
  • Uses of cement
• Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium 
  • Role of Mg in biological system
  • Role of Ca in biological system

Group I and group 2 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens; uses. Preparation and Properties of Some important Compounds: Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogencarbonate, biological importance of sodium and potassium. Industrial use of lime and limestone, biological importance of Mg and Ca.

• Introduction to p-block Elements 
  • General introduction of p-block elements
  • Electronic configuration of p-block elements
  • General characteristics of p-block elements

  1. Oxidation states
  2. Metallic and nonmetallic character
  3. Variation in physical properties
  4. Difference in behaviour of first element of each group
• Group 13 Elements - The Boron Family 
  • Electronic configuration
  • Occurrence
  • Atomic and ionic radii
  • Ionization Enthalpy
  • Electropositivity or metallic character
  • Electronegativity
  • Physical Properties

  1. Nature and hardness
  2. Density
  3. Melting and boiling points
  4. Conductivity

  • Atomic and physical properties of group 13 elements
  • Trends in chemical reactivity: Oxidation state
  • Chemical Properties: Reactivity towards air, water, acids, alkalies, hydrogen, halogens, carbon.
  • Preparation of boron
  • Properties of boron
• Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron 
• Some Important Compounds of Boron 
  • Borax or sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na₂B₄O ₇.10H₂O) or Na₂[B₄O₅(OH)₄].8H₂O
  • Boric acid or orthoboric acid (H₃BO₃)
  • Diborane (B₂H₆)
  • Boron trifluoride
• Uses of Boron and Aluminium and Their Compounds 
  • Uses of boron
  • Uses of aluminium
  • Some important alloys of aluminium
  • Important compounds of aluminium

  1. Aluminium chloride, AlCl₃
  2. Potash alum K₂SO₄.Al₂(SO₄)₃.24H₂O
• Group 14 Elements - the Carbon Family 
  • Electronic Configuration
  • Occurrence
  • Atomic and ionic radii
  • Covalent Radius
  • Ionization Enthalpy
  • Metallic character
  • Electronegativity
  • Physical Properties

  1. Physical state
  2. Density
  3. Melting and boiling points
  4. Catenation
  5. Atomic and physical properties of group 14 elements

  • Trends in chemical reactivity: oxidation states
  • Chemical Properties: Reactivity towards oxygen, water, hydrogen, halogen, acids, alkalies
• Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon 
• Allotropes of Carbon - Diamond 
• Allotropes of Carbon - Graphite 
• Allotropes of Carbon - Fullerenes 
• Allotropes of Carbon - Uses of Carbon 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Monoxide 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Carbon Dioxide 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicon Dioxide 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicones 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Silicates 
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon - Zeolites 

General Introduction to p-Block Elements. Group 13 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group; Boron, some important compounds: borax, boric acids, boron hydrides. Aluminium: uses, reactions with acids and alkalies. General 14 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first element. Carbon, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties: uses of some important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of silicon and a few uses: silicon tetrachloride, silicones, silicates and zeolites, their uses.

• Tetravalence of Carbon - Shapes of Organic Compounds 
  • Tetravalency of carbon
  • The Shapes of Carbon Compounds
  • Some Characteristic Features of σ and π Bonds
• Organic Compounds 
  • Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas 
    • Representation of organic molecules (2-D)

    1. Lewis structure/ dot structure
    2. Dash formula/ structural formula
    3. Condensed structural formula
    4. Bond-line formula
  • Three-dimensional Representation of Organic Molecules 
    • Three-dimensional representation of organic compounds

    1. Wedge and dash formula
    2. Fischer projection (Cross) formula
    3. Newman projection formula
    4. Sawhorse or andiron or perspective formula
• Classification of Organic Compounds 
  • Classification based on carbon skeleton
  • Classification based on functional group
• Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 
  • The IUPAC System of Nomenclature 
    • IUPAC system (Systematic naming system)
    • Classification of carbon atoms in organic compounds
    • IUPAC name of an organic compound
  • IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes 
    • Rules for IUPAC nomenclature of saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
    • Rules for naming cyclic or alicyclic hydrocarbons
    • Rules for naming compounds containing double and triple bonds
    • Straight chain hydrocarbons
    • Branched-chain hydrocarbons,
    • Nomenclature of branched-chain alkanes
    • Cyclic Compounds
  • Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Having Functional Group(s) 
  • Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds 
• Isomerism 
  • Structural isomerism

  1. Chain isomerism
  2. Position isomerism
  3. Functional group isomerism
  4. Metamerism
  5. Tautomerism

  • Stereoisomerism
  • Geometrical isomerism/Cis-trans isomerism
  • Optical isomerism: enantiomers, dextrorotatory, laevorotatory, diastereomers, racemic mixture/ racemate, resolution.
• Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism 
  • Fission of a Covalent Bond 

    heterolytic cleavage, homolytic cleavage

  • Nucleophiles and Electrophiles 
  • Electron Movement in Organic Reactions 
  • Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds 
    • Electronic displacement in covalent bond
    • Significance of electronic displacement
  • Inductive Effect 
    • Inductive effect
    • Types of inductive effect

    1. Negative inductive effect
    2. Positive inductive effect
  • Resonance Structure 
  • Resonance Effect 
    • Resonance or mesomerism
    • Features of resonating structures
    • Resonance effect or Mesomeric effect
    • Movement or flow of electrons
    • Types of resonance effect

    1. Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect)
    2. Negative Resonance Effect (- R effect)
  • Electromeric Effect (E Effect) 
    • Electromeric effect
    • Types of electromeric effect

    1. +E effect
    2. -E effect

    • Direction of the shift of electron pairs
  • Hyperconjugation 
    • Hyperconjugation
    • Hyperconjugation effect or Baker and Nathan effect
    • No-bond resonance
    • Structural requirements for hyperconjugation
    • Hyperconjugation and carbocation
  • Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms 
    • Substitution reactions
    • Addition reactions
    • Elimination reactions
    • Rearrangement reactions
    • Condensation reaction
    • Isomerisation reaction
• Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds - Introduction 
  • types (name only), purity, sharp melting point, boiling point
  • Sublimation
  • Crystallization
  • Distillation
  • Steam distillation
  • Azeotropic Distillation
  • Differential extraction
  • Chromatography
• Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds - Sublimation 
• Purification of Solids 
  • Crystallization 
  • Distillation 
    • Simple distillation
    • Fractional Distillation
    • Distillation under Reduced Pressure
• Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds - Differential Extraction 
• Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds - Chromatography 

  Adsorption chromatography, Column chromatography, Thin Layer Chromatography and Partition Chromatography

• Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen 
• Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds - Detection of Other Elements 
  • Test for Nitrogen
  • Test for Sulphur
  • Test for Halogens
  • Test for Phosphorus
• Quantitative Analysis of Carbon and Hydrogen 
• Quantitative Analysis of Nitrogen 
  • Dumas method
  • Kjeldahl’s method
• Quantitative Analysis of Halogens 
  • Carius method
• Quantitative Analysis of Sulphur 
• Quantitative Analysis of Phosphorus 
• Quantitative Analysis of Oxygen 

General introduction, methods of purification qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radials, carbocations, carbanions; electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.

• Classification of Hydrocarbons 
  • Classification of hydrocarbons

  1. Saturated hydrocarbons
     a) Straight chain alkanes
     b) Branched-chain alkanes
  2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
     a) Alkenes
     b) Alkynes
  3. Aromatic hydrocarbons
     a) Benzenoids
     b) Non-benzenoids
• Alkanes - Introduction 
  • Alkanes (Paraffins)
  • General formula
  • Occurrence
  • Structure of alkanes
  • Classification
  • Uses of alkanes
• Alkanes 
  • Nomenclature and Isomerism 
    • Nomenclature of alkanes

    • Common system
    • IUPAC system
    • IUPAC names of some straight-chain alkanes
    • IUPAC names of some alkyl groups
    • Common and IUPAC names of some alkanes
    • IUP AC naming of cycloalkanes

    • Isomerism of alkanes
  • Preparation of Alkanes from Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, Alkyl Halides and Carboxylic Acids 
    • Methods of preparation of alkanes

    • From unsaturated hydrocarbons (By catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes)

    1. From alkenes
    2. From alkynes

    • From alkyl halides (Wurtz reaction)
    • From alkyl halides (Corey-House reaction)
    • Reduction of alkyl halides
    • By the use of Grignard reagent
    • Decarboxylation reaction
    • From carboxylic acids by electrolysis (Kolbe's electrolytic method)
    • Reduction of carboxylic acids
  • Conformations (Ethane) 
    • Conformations
    • Conformations of ethane: Eclipsed and Staggered conformation 
    • Representation: Sawhorse and Newman projections
    • Relative stabilities of the conformations of ethane
• Physical Properties of Alkanes 
  • Physical properties of alkanes

  1. Nature
  2. Boiling point
  3. Melting point
  4. Solubility
  5. Density
• Chemical Properties of Alkanes 
  • Chemical properties of alkanes

  1. Substitution reactions - Halogenation, Nitration, Sulphonation
  2. Combustion of alkanes (oxidation)
  3. Controlled oxidation
  4. Isomerisation
  5. Aromatization
  6. Reaction with steam
  7. Pyrolysis
• Alkenes - Introduction 
  • Alkenes
  • General formula
  • Occurrence
• Alkenes 
  • Structure of Double Bond (Ethene) 
    • Electronic structure of ethene or ethylene
  • Nomenclature 
    • Nomenclature of alkenes

    • Common names
    • IUPAC nomenclature
    • The common and IUPAC names of some alkenes
  • Preparation of Alkenes from Alkynes, Alkyl Halides, Vicinal Dihalides and Alcohols by Acidic Dehydration 
    • Methods of preparation of alkenes

    1. From alkyl halides (dehydrohalogenation reaction)
    2. From dihalogen derivatives (dehalogenation of vicinal dihalide)
    3. From alkynes (catalytic hydrogenation)
    4. From alcohols (dehydration reaction)
    5. From potassium salts of dicarboxylic acids (Kolbe's reaction)
• Isomerism 
  • Structural isomerism

  1. Chain isomerism
  2. Position isomerism
  3. Functional group isomerism
  4. Metamerism
  5. Tautomerism

  • Stereoisomerism
  • Geometrical isomerism/Cis-trans isomerism
  • Optical isomerism: enantiomers, dextrorotatory, laevorotatory, diastereomers, racemic mixture/ racemate, resolution.
• Physical Properties of Alkenes 
• Chemical Properties of Alkenes 
  • Chemical properties of alkenes

  1. Addition reactions: Addition of hydrogen (catalytic hydrogenation), Addition of halogens, Addition of hydrogen halides, Markovnikov's rule, Anti-Markovnikov's rule or Peroxide effect, Oxymercuration demercuration (Indirect hydration of alkenes), Addition of sulphuric acid, Addition of ozone (ozonolysis)
  2. Mechanism of electrophilic reaction
  3. Oxidation reactions: Combustion, Hydroboration-oxidation, Oxidation with potassium permanganate (alkaline), Oxidation with acidic or hot potassium permanganate or potassium dichromate, Catalytic oxidation/ Epoxidation
  4. Polymerization reaction
  5. Uses of alkenes
• Alkynes - Introduction 
• Alkynes 
  • Nomenclature and Isomerism 
    • Nomenclature of alkynes

    • Common system
    • Derived system
    • IUPAC system
    • Common names and IUPAC names of some of the alkynes

    • Isomerism in alkynes

    • Chain isomerism
    • Position isomerism
    • Functional isomerism
    • Ring chain isomerism
  • Structure of Triple Bond 
  • Preparation of Alkynes from Calcium Carbide and Vicinal Dihalides 
    • Methods of preparation of alkynes

    1. Action of water on calcium carbide: Industrial preparation of acetylene
    2. By dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides or geminal dihalides: From vicinal dihalide, From geminal dihalide, Double dehydrohalogenation
    3. By the action of zinc on tetrahalogen derivatives of alkanes (dehalogenation)
    4. Kolbe's electrolysis reaction
    5. By dehalogenation of haloform
    6. Berthelot's synthesis
    7. Synthesis of higher alkynes
• Physical Properties of Alkynes 
  • Physical properties of alkynes

  1. Nature
  2. Solubility
  3. Melting point and Boiling point
• Chemical Properties of Alkynes 
  • Acidic character of alkyne

  • Formation of alkali metal ethynides (acetylides)
  • Formation of heavy metal ethynides (acetylides)
  • Formation of alkynyl Grignard reagents

  • Addition reactions

  • Addition of hydrogen (catalytic hydrogenation or reduction of alkynes)
  • Addition of halogens (anti-addition): Action of chlorine, Action of bromine
  • Addition of halogen acids (hydrogen halides)
  • Addition of water (acid-catalyzed hydration of alkynes)

  • Oxidation reactions

  • Combustion
  • Oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate (test for unsaturation)
  • Oxidative hydroboration

  • Ozonolysis reactions
  • Polymerization reactions: Linear and Cyclic polymerization
• Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Introduction 
  • Aromatic hydrocarbons
  • Classification of aromatic hydrocarbons
    1) Benzenoid compounds
    2) Non-benzenoid compounds
  • Main part of aromatic compound
    a) Nucleus
    b) Side chain
• Aromatic Hydrocarbons 
  • Nomenclature and Isomerism 
    • Nomenclature of Aromatic hydrocarbons: IUPAC nomenclature
    • Isomerism in Aromatic hydrocarbons
  • Structure of Benzene 
    • Benzene
    • Structure of benzene

    1. Molecular formula
    2. Cyclic structure
    3. Evidence for cyclic structure

    • Resonance and stability of benzene
  • Aromaticity (Huckel Rule) 
    • Aromaticity: 
    • Huckel rule and its applications
    • Antiaromaticity
  • Preparation of Benzene 
    • Preparation of Benzene

    1. From acetylene/ethyne (trimerization)
    2. Decarboxylation of aromatic compounds (Laboratory method)
    3. Reduction of phenol
  • Electrophilic Substitution Reactions 
    • Electrophilic substitution reactions

    1. Nitration
    2. Halogenation
    3. Sulphonation
    4. Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction
    5. Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction
  • Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution Reactions 
    • Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions

    1. Generation of the eletrophile
    2. Formation of carbocation intermediate
    3. Removal of proton from the carbocation intermediate

    • Addition reactions - Combustion
  • Directive Influence of a Functional Group in Monosubstituted Benzene 
    • Directive effect
    • Activity effects
    • Ortho, para, and meta directing groups
• Physical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons 
• Chemical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons 
• Carcinogenicity and Toxicity 

Alkanes- Nomenclature, isomerism, conformations (ethane only), physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis.

Alkanes-Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation: chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides (Markovnikov’s addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of electrophilic addition.

Alkynes-Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of- hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and water.

Aromatic hydrocarbons- Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature; Benzene; resonance, aromaticity; chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution- Nitration sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel Craft’s alkylation and acylation; directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted benzene; carcinogenicity and toxicity.

• Environmental Pollution - Introduction 
  • Bio-degradable pollutants
  • Non bio-degradable pollutants 
  • Water Pollution
  • Air Pollution
  • Noise Pollution
• Atmospheric Pollution 
  • Tropospheric Pollution - Gaseous Air Pollutants 
    • Air pollution
    • Types of Air pollution
      1) Tropospheric pollution
      2) Stratospheric pollution
    • Sources of air pollution
    • Types of air pollutants
      1) Primary air pollutants
      2) Secondary air pollutants
    • Major atmospheric pollutants
      1) Oxides of carbon: Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Sulphur dioxide (SO₂), Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Hydrocarbons
    • Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
    • Acid rain
  • Tropospheric Pollution - Particulate Pollutants 
    • Particulate pollutants
    • Source

    1. Smoke
    2. Dust
    3. Fumes
    4. Mists
    5. Effects of air pollution

    • Smog
    • Effects of photochemical smog
    • Acid rain
    • Ozone
    • Greenhouse effect and global warming
  • Stratospheric Pollution 
    • Stratospheric Pollution
    • Formation and Breakdown of Ozone
    • The Ozone Hole
    • Effects of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
• Water Pollution and Its Causes 
  • Water Pollution
  • Causes of Water Pollution
  • Sources of Water Pollution
  • International Standards for Drinking Water 
    • Fluoride, Lead, Sulphate, Nitrate, Other metals
• Soil Pollution - Pesticides, Herbicides 
  • Soil pollution
  • Sources of soil pollution 

  1. Dumping of non-biodegradable waste
  2. Acid rain
  3. Radioactive substances
  4. Pesticides
  5. Herbicides
  6. Artificial fertilizers
  7. Pesticides
  8. Fungicides

  • Biomagnification
• Industrial Waste 
  • Types of industrial waste

  1. Biodegradable wastes
  2. Non-biodegradable wastes
• Strategies to Control Environmental Pollution 
  • Strategy to control environmental pollution

  1. Incineration
  2. Digestion
  3. Collection and disposal
  4. Sewage treatment
  5. Other strategies
• Green Chemistry - Introduction 
• Green Chemistry in Day-to-day Life 
  • Dry Cleaning of Clothes
  • Bleaching of Paper
  • Synthesis of Chemicals
  • ‘Green Solution’ to Clean Turbid Water

Environmental pollution: Air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smogs, major atmospheric pollutants; acid rain ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse effect and global warming- pollution due to industrial wastes; green chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategy for control of environmental pollution.