Biology NEET (UG) Topics and Syllabus

• The Living World 
  • Introduction
  • What is ‘Living’?
  • Characteristics of living organisms

  1. Growth
  2. Reproduction
  3. Cellular structure
  4. Response to stimuli
  5. Homeostasis
  6. Metabolism

  • Difference  between anabolism and catabolism
• Diversity in the Living World 
  • Diversity in the Living World
  • Biodiversity
  • Types of Biodiversity

  1. Genetic Biodiversity
  2. Species Biodiversity
  3. Ecological Biodiversity
• Nomenclature 
  • Nomenclature
  • Identification
  • Need for naming living organisms
  • Types of Nomenclature

  1. Vernacular/Local/Common names
  2. Scientific names
     (a) Binomial Nomenclature
     (b) Trinominal Nomenclature
  • Binomial Nomenclature 
    • Scientific names
    • Binomial Nomenclature
    • Need for Binomial Nomenclature
    • Universal rules of Binomial Nomenclature
    • Scientific names of some common organisms
    • Importance of Binomial Nomenclature
    • The drawback of Binomial Nomenclature
• Classification 
  • Classification
  • Why do we classify things?
  • Need for Classification
  • Advantage of Classification
• Taxonomy and Systematics 
  • Taxonomy
  • Systematics
  • Classification of Taxonomy

  1. Plant Taxonomy
  2. Animal Taxonomy
• Taxonomic Hierarchy of Living Organisms: Unit of Classification 
  • Taxonomic Hierarchy of Living Organisms

  • Species
  • Genus
  • Family
  • Order
  • Class
  • Phylum
  • Kingdom
• Taxonomical Aids 
  • Taxonomical Aids
  • Usage of Taxonomical Aids

  • Herbarium
  • Botanical Gardens
  • Biological museums
  • Zoological Parks
  • Key
  • Molecular taxonomy
  • Automated species identification tools

• Biological Classification 
  • Biological classification
  • Dichotomous key
  • Features of dichotomous key
  • Dichotomy of Animals
• History of Classification 
  • History of Classification

  • Aristotle
  • Theophrastus
  • John Ray
  • Carolus Linnaeus
  • Ernst Haeckal
  • R.H.Whittaker
  • Carl Woese
• Five Kingdom Classification 
  • Five kingdom classification
  • Merits of five kingdom classification
  • Demerits of five kingdom classification
• Kingdom Monera 
  • Kingdom Monera
  • Bacteria
  • Characteristic features of Kingdom Monera
  • Structure of a bacterium cell
• Bacteria 
  • Bacteria
  • Bacteria Friends or Foes?
  • Bacteriology
  • Milestones in Bacteriology
  • Characteristic features of Bacteria
  • Numbers of Bacteria
  • Size of Bacteria
• Classification of Bacteria 
  • Classification of bacteria according to the shape of their cell:

  • Bacilli
  • Spirilla
  • Cocci
  • Vibrio 
  • Stalked
  • Budded

  • Classification of bacteria according to the number and arrangement of flagella

  • Monotrichous
  • Lophotrichous
  • Amphitrichous
  • Peritrichous
  • Atrichous

  • Classification of bacteria based on the Composition of the Cell Wall

  • Peptidoglycan cell wall
  • Lipopolysaccharide cell wall

  • Classification of bacteria based on the Mode of Nutrition

  • Autotrophic Bacteria
  • Heterotrophic Bacteria

  • Classification of bacteria based on the Mode of Respiration

  • Anaerobic Bacteria
  • Aerobic Bacteria
• Structure of Bacteria 
  • Structure of Bacteria

  • Capsule/Glycocalyx
  • Cell wall
  • Plasma membrane
  • Cytoplasm
  • Nucleoid
  • Plasmids
  • Flagella
  • Pili or Fimbriae
  • Bacterial chromosome
  • Mesosomes
  • Polysomes / Polyribosomes
• Division of Kingdom Monera 
  • Division of Kingdom Monera

  • Sub-kingdom: Archaebacteria
  • Sub-Kingdom: Eubacteria
  • Phylum Cyanobacteria
  • Phylum Anaerobic Phototrophic Bacteria
  • Phylum Prochlorophyta
  • Phylum Schizophyta
• Examples of Monera 
  • Examples of Monera

  • Mycoplasma or Mollicutes
  • Actinomycetes (Actinobacteria)
• Kingdom Protista 
  • Kingdom Protista
  • Protozoa
  • Characteristics of Kingdom Protista
  • Structure of Protozoa (Amoeba)
• Protozoa 
  • Protozoa
  • Protozoology
  • Milestones in Protozoology
  • Characteristics of Protozoa
  • Structure of Protozoa (Amoeba)
  • Numbers of Protozoa
  • Size of Protozoa
• Major Groups of Protists 
  • Major Groups of Protists

  • Chrysophytes
  • Dinoflagellates
  • Euglenoids
  • Slime moulds
  • Protozoans
    (i) Flagellated Protozoans
    (ii) Amoebid Protozoans
    (iii) Sporozoans
    (iv) Ciliated Protozoans
• Kingdom Fungi 
  • Kingdom Fungi
  • Fungi
  • Characteristics of Fungi
  • Structure of Fungi
• Fungi 
  • Fungi
  • Mycology
  • Milestones in Mycology
  • World War II and Penicillin History speaks on fungi
  • Characteristics of Fungi
  • Structure of Fungi
  • Numbers of Fungi
• Structure of Fungi 
  • Structure of Fungi

  • Spores
  • Yeast
  • Mould
• Life Processes in Fungi: Nutrition 
  • Life processes in Fungi: Nutrition

  • Parasites
  • Saprophytes
  • Symbionts
• Life Processes in Fungi: Reproduction 
  • Vegetative Reproduction of Fungi

  • Fragmentation
  • Budding
  • Fission

  • Asexual Reproduction of Fungi

  • Zoospores
  • Conidia
  • Oidia/ Thallospores/ Arthrospores
  • Fission
  • Budding
  • Chlamydospore

  • Sexual Reproduction of Fungi

  • Planogametic copulation
  • Gametangial contact
  • Gametangial copulation
  • Spermatization
  • Somatogamy
• Division of Kingdom Fungi 
  • Division: Gymnomycota
  • Division: Mastigomycota
  • Division: Amastigomycota
  • Classes: Oomycetes
  • Classes: Zygomycetes
  • Classes: Ascomycetes
  • Classes: Basidiomycetes
  • Classes: Phycomycetes
  • Form class: Deuteromycetes
• Kingdom Plantae 
  • Kingdom Plantea
  • Characteristic of Kingdom Plantea
  • Classification of Kingdom Plantea
• Classification of Kingdom Plantea 
  • Classification of Kingdom Plantea

  • Thallophyta
  • Bryophytes
  • Pteridophytes
  • Phanerogams
    (a) Gymnosperm
    (b) Angiosperms
• Life Cycle Patterns in Plants 
  • Life Cycle Patterns in Plants

  • Alternation of Generation
  • Haplontic Life Cycle
  • Diplontic Life Cycle
  • Haplodiplontic Life Cycle
• Kingdom Animalia 
  • Kingdom Animalia
  • Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia
• Viruses 
  • Viruses
  • Virology
  • Milestones in Virology
  • Size and Shape
  • Characteristic Features of Viruses
• Structure and Function of Viruses 
  • Structure and Function of Viruses

  • Bacteriophage
  • Tobacco mosaic virus
  • HIV
• Viroids 
• Prions 
• Lichens 

• Kingdom Plantae 
  • Kingdom Plantea
  • Characteristic of Kingdom Plantea
  • Classification of Kingdom Plantea
• Taxonomy and Systematics 
  • Plant Taxonomy 
    • Plant taxonomy 
    • Importance of Plant Taxonomy
• Systems of Plant Taxonomy 
  • Systems of Plant Taxonomy

  • Artificial system of Plant classification
  • Natural system of Plant classification
  • Phylogenetic system of classification
  • Modern system of classification
  • Artificial System of Plant Classification 
    • Artificial system of Plant classification
    • Characteristics of Artificial system of classification
    • Contribution of Scientist
    • Merits and Demerits of Artificial system of Plant classification
  • Natural System of Plant Classification 
    • Natural system of classification
    • Characteristics of Natural system of classification
    • Contribution of Scientist
    • Merits and Demerits of Natural system of classification
  • Phylogenetic System of Plant Classification 
    • Phylogenetic system of Plant classification
    • Characteristics of Phylogenetic system of Plant classification
    • Two main phylogenetic systems of classification

    • Engler and Prantl system of classification
    • Hutchinson’s classification

    • Contribution of Scientist
    • Merits and Demerits of Phylogenetic system of Plant classification
  • Modern System of Plant Classification 
    • Modern system of Plant classification
    • Characteristics of Modern system of Plant classification

    • Numerical Taxonomy
    • Cytotaxonomy
    • Chemotaxonomy
• Classification of Kingdom Plantea 
  • Classification of Kingdom Plantea

  • Thallophyta
  • Bryophytes
  • Pteridophytes
  • Phanerogams
    (a) Gymnosperm
    (b) Angiosperms
• Thallophyta 
• Algae 
  • Algae
  • Algology (Phycology)
  • Milestones in Algology (Phycology)
  • Characteristics of Algae
  • Numbers of Algae
  • Size of Algae
• Reproduction of Algae 
  • Vegetative Reproduction of Algae

  • Fission or Cell division
  • Fragmentation
  • Hormogonium
  • Adventitious branches
  • Bulbils
  • Amylum stars
  • Budding

  • Asexual reproduction of Algae

  • By Forming Zoospores
  • By Forming Aplanospores
  • By Forming Hypnospores
  • By Forming Akinetes
  • By Forming Endospores
  • Pamella Stage
  • By Autospores
  • By Cysts

  • Sexual Reproduction of Algae

  • Isogamous
  • Anisogamous
  • Oogamous
• Economic Importance of Algae 
  • Beneficial activities of Algae
  • Harmful activity of Algae
• Classification of Algae 
  • Classification of Algae

  • Chlorophyceae (Green algae)
  • Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
  • Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
  • Xanthophyceae
  • Chrysophyceae
  • Bacillariophyceae
  • Cryptophyceae
  • Dinophyceae
  • Chloromonadineae
  • Euglenophyceae
  • Cyanophyceae
  • Chlorophyceae (Green Algae) 
    • Chlorophyceae (Green algae)
    • Characteristic of Chlorophyceae (Green algae)
    • Examples of Chlorophyceae (Green algae)
  • Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae) 
    • Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
    • Characteristics of Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
    • Classification of Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
    • Economic Importance of Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
  • Rhodophyceae (Red Algae) 
    • Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
    • Characteristics of Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
    • Uses of Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
• Examples of Algae 
  • Examples of Algae

  • Ulothrix
  • Fucus
  • Porphyra
  • Spirogyra
  • Polysiphonia
  • Porphyra
  • Gracilaria
  • Gelidium
• Bryophytes: Amphibians of Plant Kingdom 
  • Bryophytes: Amphibians of Plant Kingdom
  • Characteristic of Bryophytes
• Life Cycle of Bryophytes 
  • Life Cycle of Bryophytes

  • Haploid gametophyte
  • Diploid saprophytic

  • Asexual Reproduction of Bryophytes

  • Vegetative reproduction
  • Fragmentation

  • Sexual Reproduction of Bryophytes
• Economic Importance of Bryophytes 
• Division of Bryophytes 
  • Class Bryopsida - Mosses
  • Class Marchantiopsida – Liverworts
  • Class Anthocerotopsida - Hornworts
  • Class Hepaticopsida
• Pteridophytes: Seedless Vascular Cryptogams 
  • Pteridophytes: Seedless Vascular Cryptogams
  • Characteristic of Pteridophytes
• Life Cycle of Pteridophyta 
  • Life Cycle of Pteridophyta

  • Psilophytopsida
  • Psilotopsida
  • Lycopsida
  • Sphenopsida
  • Pteropsida
• Economic Importance of Pteridophyte 
• Division of Pteridophytes 
  • Psilophytopsida
  • Psilotopsida
  • Lycopsida
  • Sphenopsida
  • Pteropsida
• Phanerogams: Flowering Plants 
  • Phanerogams
  • Types of Phanerogams

  • Gymnosperm
  • Angiosperms

  • Comparison of Gymnosperm with Angiosperms
• Gymnosperms: Naked Seed Producing Plants 
  • Gymnosperms: Naked seed-producing Plants
  • Characteristic of Gymnosperms
• Economic Importance of Gymnosperms 
• Reproduction and Fertilization in Gymnosperms 
  • Male Cones
  • Female Cones
  • Fertilization
• Angiosperms 
  • Angiosperms
  • Characteristics of Angiosperms
• Classification of Angiosperms 
  • Classification of Angiosperms

  • Dicotyledons
  • Monocotyledons

  • Characteristic features of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons
• Reproduction in Angiosperms 
• Life Cycle Patterns in Plants 
  • Life Cycle Patterns in Plants

  • Alternation of Generation
  • Haplontic Life Cycle
  • Diplontic Life Cycle
  • Haplodiplontic Life Cycle

• Kingdom Animalia 
  • Kingdom Animalia
  • Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia
• New Criteria for Basis of Classification 
  • Levels of organisation

  • Cellular level of organisation
  • Tissue level of organisation
  • Organ system level of organisation

  • Diploblastic and Triploblastic organisation
  • Patterns of symmetry
  • Coelom
  • Segmentation and Notochord
• Classification of Kingdom Animalia 
  • Parazoa
  • Eumetazoa

  1. Radiata
  2. Bilateria

  • Division 1: Protostomia
  • Division 2: Deuterostomia 
• Invertebrata and Vertebrata 
  • Non Chordates (Invertebrata)
  • Chordates 

  • Chordata: Prochordata
  • Chordata: Vertebrata

  • Comparison of chordates and non-chordates
  • Non Chordates (Invertebrata) 
  • Phylum: Chordata 
    • Chordata
    • Subphylum Prochordata
    • Subphylum Vertebrata
• Non Chordates (Invertebrata) 
  • Phylum: Porifera 
  • Phylum: Cnidaria/Coelenterata 
  • Phylum: Ctenophora 
  • Phylum: Platyhelminthes 
  • Phylum: Aschelminthes 
  • Phylum: Annelida 
  • Phylum: Arthropoda 
  • Phylum: Mollusca 
  • Phylum: Echinodermata 
  • Phylum: Hemichordata 
• Chordata: Vertebrata 
  • Subphylum: Prochordata 
• Subphylum: Prochordata 
  • Subphylum: Urochordata 
  • Subphylum: Cephalochordata 
• Phylum: Chordata 
  • Subphylum: Vertebrata 
• Subphylum: Vertebrata 
  • Class: Cyclostomata 
  • Class: Chondrichthyes 
  • Class: Osteichthyes 
  • Class: Amphibia 
  • Class: Reptilia 
  • Class: Aves 
  • Class: Mammalia 

• Concept of Root 
  • primary root, secondary, tertiary, etc. roots,tap root system,fibrous root system, adventitious roots
  • Regions of the Root
  • Modifications of Root
• Stem and Modifications of Stems 
• Concept of Leaf 
  • Introduction - axillary bud,leaf base,pulvinus,lamina or the leaf blade
  • Venation - Structure of a leaf : (a) Parts of a leaf(b) Reticulate venation(c) Parallel venation
  • Types of Leaves - Compound leaves : (a) pinnately compound leaf(b) palmately compound leaf
  • Phyllotaxy - Different types of phyllotaxy : (a) Alternate (b) Opposite(c) Whorled
  • Modifications of Leaves - Modifications of leaf for : (a) support: tendril (b) protection:spines (c) storage: fleshy leaves
  • Characteristics of leaf
  • Functions of the leaf
  • Parts of the leaf

  1. Leaf base (hypopodium)
  2. Petiole (stipe or mesopodium)
  3. Lamina (Leaf blade)
• Concept of Inflorescence 
  • Racemose inflorescence
  • Cymose inflorescence
  • Mixed Inflorescence
  • Special Inflorescence
  • Types of Inflorescence
  • Based on branching pattern and other characters
• Concept of Flower 
  • Whorls of flower
  • Flower sex
  • Plant sex
  • Flower symmetry
• Flower - Parts of a Flower 
  • Calyx
  • Corolla
  • Androecium
  • Gynoecium
• Concept of Fruit 
  • parthenocarpic, pericarp, epicarp, mesocarp, endocarp
• Seed - Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed 
• Seed - Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed 
• Semi-technical Description of a Typical Flowering Plant 
• Plant Forms and Functions 
  • Some Important Families 
    • Fabaceae
    • Solanaceae
    • Liliaceae
• Morphology and Modifications - Tissues 

• Morphology and modifications:- Tissues

• Plant Tissues 
  • Meristems Or Meristematic Tissues 
    • Classification of Meristem

    1. Primordial meristem or promeristem 
    2. Apical meristems
    3. Intercalary meristematic
    4. Lateral meristem

    • Function of Meristem
  • Permanent Tissue 
• Tissue System 
  • Epidermal Tissue System 
    • Introduction
    • Leaf Epidermis
    • Subsidiary Cells
    • Epidermal Outgrowths
    • Prickles
  • Ground Tissue System 
  • Vascular Tissue System 
• Anatomy of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Plants 
  • Dicotyledonous Root 
  • Monocotyledonous Root 
  • Dicotyledonous Stem 
  • Monocotyledonous Stem 
  • Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf 
  • Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf 
• Secondary Growth 
  • Vascular Cambium 
    • Formation of cambial ring
    • Activity of the cambial ring
    • Spring wood and autumn wood
    • Heartwood and sapwood
  • Cork Cambium 
  • Secondary Growth in Roots 
• Anatomy and Functions of Different Parts of Flowering Plants 

  Anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed (to be dealt along with the relevant experiment of the Practical Syllabus).

• Anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed (to be dealt along with the relevant experiment of the Practical Syllabus).

• Animal Tissues 
  • Epithelial Tissue 
    1. Simple epithelial tissue
       1. Squamous epithelial tissue
       2. Cuboidal epithelial tissue
       3. Columnar epithelium
       4. Ciliated epithelium
       5. Glandular epithelium
       6. Sensory epithelial tissue
       7. Germinal epithelial tissue
    2. Compound epithelial tissue
       a. Stratified epithelium
       b. Transitional epithelium

    • Cell junctions 
      Types of Cell junction
      - Tight junctions (TJs)
      - Hemidesmosomes (HDs)
      - Gap Junctions (GJs)
      - Adherens Junctions (AJs)
      - Desmosomes (Ds)
  • Connective Tissue 
    1. Connective Tissue Proper
       1. Areolar tissue (Areola: air pockets)
       2. Adipose tissue (adipo: fat)
    2. Dense Connective Tissue
    3. Supporting Connective Tissue - Cartilage, Hyaline cartilage (Hyline: Glass-like), Elastic cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Calcified cartilage, Bone
    4. Fluid Connective tissue (Vascular)
  • Muscular Tissue 
    • Types of Muscular Tissue

    • Skeletal muscles,
    • Smooth or Non-striated muscles,
    • Cardiac Muscles
• Neural Tissue 
  • Neural tissue
  • Types of Neural tissue

  1. Neurons/Nerve cells 
  2. Neuroglial cells
• Earthworm - Lampito Mauritii 
  • Morphology 

    Morphology - (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of EARTHWORM

  • Anatomy 
    • Anatomy of EarthWorm
• Cockroach - Periplaneta Americana 
  • Morphology of Cockroach 
  • Anatomy of Cockroach 

    Anatomy and Functions of Different Systems of an Insect (Cockroach) (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive)

• Frog - Rana Hexadactyla 
  • Morphology (Frog) 
  • Anatomy (Frog) 
    • Anatomy and Functions of Different Systems of an Frog (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive)
• Introduction of Structural Organisation in Animals 
• Glands 

  Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

• Types of Junctions 

  (tight, adhering and gap junctions)

• Structural Organisation in Animals (Questions) 

• Animal tissues: Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of an insect (cockroach).

• Cell: the Fundamental Unit of Life 
  • Cell
  • Totipotency
  • Experiment: Microscopic examination of onion peel.
• Overview of Cell 
• Cell Theory 
  • Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life
  • Exception to Cell Theory 
  •  Protoplasm Theory
  • Cell sizes and shapes
• Concept of Prokaryotic Cells 
• Prokaryotic Cells - Cell Envelope and Its Modifications 
• Prokaryotic Cells - Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies 
• Structure of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 
• Eukaryotic Cells 
  • Cell Membrane 
  • Cell Wall 
  • Endomembrane System 
    • The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
    • Golgi apparatus
    • Lysosomes
    • Vacuoles
  • Mitochondria 
    • Structure of mitochondrion (Longitudinal section)
  • Plastids 
  • Ribosomes 
  • Cilia and Flagella 
  • Centrosome and Centrioles 
  • Cytoskeleton 
  • Nucleus 
    • Chromosomes
  • Microbodies 
• Plant Cell and Animal Cell 
• Structure and Functions of Cell Envelope, Cell Membrane, Cell Wall, Cell Organelles 

• Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life:- Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; Plant cell and animal cell; cell envelope; cell membrane, cell wall; cell organelles - structure and function; endomembrane system, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, vacuoles; mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids, microbodies; cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella, centrioles (ultrastructure and function); nucleus, nuclear membrane, chromatin, nucleolus.

• Analyse - Chemical Composition 
• Primary and Secondary Metabolites 
  • Organic Molecules
• Biomacromolecules 
  • macromolecules or biomacromolecules
• Concept of Polysaccharides 
• Concept of Proteins 
  • Classification of Amino acids
  • Structure of Protein
  • Protein Denaturation
  • Protein Bonding
  • Test for Proteins
• Biomolecules in the Cell 
  • Nucleic Acids 
    • Nucleotides
    • Structure of DNA
    • Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
    • DNA double helix
    • Types of RNA molecules
    • Biological functions of nucleic acids
  • Enzymes 
    • Enzymes
    • Properties of Enzymes
• Structure of Proteins 

  Structure and Function of Proteins

  amino acids – (structure: glycine, alanine, serine)

  amino acids as zwitter-ion

  examples of acidic, basic, neutral, sulphur containing amino acids

  essential and nonessential amino acids

  levels of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary)

  functions of proteins

• Nature of Bond Linking Monomers in a Polymer 
• Dynamic State of Body Constituents – Concept of Metabolism 
• Metabolic Basis for Living 
• The Living State 
• Enzymes - Chemical Reactions 
• Enzymes - High Rates of Chemical Conversions 
• Nature of Enzyme Action 
  1. Purely proteinaceous enzymes
  2. Conjugated enzymes
• Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity 
• Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes 
• Enzymes - Co-factors 
• Biomolecules in Living System 
• Chemical Constituents of Living Cells 
• Structure and Function of Carbohydrates 

  General classification and functions of:- monosaccharides (glucose, ribose and deoxyribose), disaccharides (maltose, lactose and sucrose), polysaccharides (glycogen, starch, cellulose, inulin, and chitin).

• Structure and Function of Lipids 

  classification, structure and functions of fats and oils

• Chemical constituents of living cells: biomolecules, structure and function of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, enzymes, types, properties, enzyme action.

• Introduction of Cell Division 
  • Amitosis (Direct Cell Division)
  • Mitosis
  • Closed and Open Mitosis
  • Cytokinesis
  • Significance of Mitosis
  • Meiosis

  • Meiosis I-Reduction Division

  • Significance of Meiosis
• Phases of Cell Cycle 
  • Interphase, M Phase (Mitosis phase),G1 phase (Gap 1), S phase (Synthesis), G2 phase (Gap 2)
• M Phase 
  • Prophase 
  • Metaphase 
  • Anaphase 
  • Telophase 
  • Cytokinesis 
• Significance of Meiosis 
  • Meiosis and their significance
• Meiosis - Meiosis I 
• Meiosis - Meiosis II 
• Significance of Mitosis 
• Cell Cycle 
  • Interphase
  • G₁-phase
  • G₀ Phase
  • S-phase
  • G₂ phase
  • M-phase or period of division
  • Duration of Cell Cycle

• Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance.

• Introduction of Transport in Plants 
• Movement of Water, Gases and Nutrients 
• Cell to Cell Transport 
  • Passive Transport

  • Characteristics of diffusion
  • Significance of diffusion in Plants

  1. Channel Protein
  2. Carrier Protein

  • Active Transport
• Absorption and Conduction of Water and Minerals in Plants 
  • Concept of Diffusion 
  • Facilitated Diffusion 
  • Active Transport 
    •  Active absorption
    • Types of Active absorption:

    1. Osmotic absorption
    2. Non-osmotic absorption
  • Turgidity and Flaccidity (Plasmolysis) 
    • Turgidity
    • Plasmolysis
    • Flaccidity
    • Uses of Turgidity of plants
  • Concept of Imbibition 
• Means of Transport 
  • Comparison of Different Transport Processes 
• Plant-water Relations 
  • Concept of Plant-water Relations 
  • Osmosi 
• Water Potential (ψ) 
  • Chemical potential
  • Water Potential (ψ)
  • Factors affecting water absorption
• Introduction of Long Distance Transport of Water 
• Long Distance Transport of Water 
  • Plants Absorb Water 
    • apoplast pathway
    • symplast pathway
  • Water Movement up a Plant 
    • Root Pressure and Guttation
    • Transpiration pull
• Transpiration 
  • Transpiration
  • Demonstration of Transpiration
  • Exchange of Gases
• Transpiration - Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise 
• Uptake and Transport of Mineral Nutrients 
  • Uptake of Mineral Ions 
• Translocation of Mineral Ions 
• Phloem Transport - Flow from Source to Sink 
• Phloem Transport - Pressure Flow Or Mass Flow Hypothesis 
• Opening and Closing of Stomata 
• Diffusion of Gases 
• Transport in Plants (Numericals) 

• Movement of water, gases and nutrients; cell to cell transport, Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport; plant-water relations, lmbibition, water potential, osmosis, plasmolysis; long distance transport of water-Absorption, apoplast, symplast, transpiration pull, root pressure and guttation; transpiration, opening and closing of stomata; Uptake and translocation of mineral nutrients - Transport of food, phloem transport, massflow hypothesis; diffusion of gases.

• Introduction of Mineral Nutrition 
• Methods to Study the Mineral Requirements of Plants 
• Elementary Idea of Hydroponics 
• Essential Mineral Elements 
  • Criteria for Essentiality 
  • Macro and Micro Nutrients and Their Role 
    • Nitrogen,Phosphorus,Potassium,Calcium,Magnesium,Sulphur,Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, Chlorine
  • Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements 
  • Toxicity of Micronutrients 
• Mechanism of Absorption of Elements 
• Translocation of Solutes 
• Nitrogen Metabolism 
• Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements 
• Biogeochemical Cycle 
  • Nitrogen Cycle 
    • Nitrogen fixation
    • Nitrogen assimilation
    • Ammonification
    • Nitrification
    • Denitrification
    • Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
• Metabolism of Nitrogen 
  • Biological Nitrogen Fixation 
• Nitrogen to Ammonia Conversion and Nitrogenase 
• Mineral Nutrition (Questions) 

• Essential minerals, macro- and micronutrients and their role; deficiency symptoms; mineral toxicity; elementary idea of hydroponics as a method to study mineral nutrition; nitrogen metabolism, nitrogen cycle, biological nitrogen fixation.

• Early Experiments - (Photosynthesis) 
  • Photosynthesis in Higher Plants (Introduction and Experiments)
• Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place 
• Pigments Are Involved in Photosynthesis 
  • difference between chlorophyll ‘a’&‘b’, carotenoids and xanthophyll
  • Pigments Involved in Photosynthesis (Elementary Idea)
• Role of Sunlight in Photosynthesis 
  • Light Dependent Reaction (Hill Reaction \ Light Reaction) 
    • Reaction centre
    • Photosystems I and II
• Concept of Electron Transport 
• Electron Transport - Splitting of Water 
• Electron Transport - Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation 
  • Light-dependent Reactions (Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation)
• Electron Transport - Chemiosmotic Hypothesis 
• ATP and NADPH Used 
  • Primary Acceptor of CO2 
  • Calvin Cycle 
• The C4 Pathway 
  • Hatch and Slack Pathway
• Photorespiration 
• Factors Affecting Photosynthesis 
  1. External Factors 
     Light
     Carbon dioxide
     Temperature
     Water
  2. Internal Factors
  3. Blackman’s law of limiting factors
  4. Significance
• Photosynthesis as a Mean of Autotrophic Nutrition 
• Chloroplast Structure 
• Site of Photosynthesis 
• Light-independent Reactions 
• Photosynthesis Reaction 
• Photochemical and Biosynthetic Phases of Photosynthesis 

  C3 and C4 pathways

• Photosynthesis in Higher Plants (Questions) 

• Photosynthesis as a mean of autotrophic nutrition; site of photosynthesis, pigments involved in photosynthesis (elementary idea); photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis; cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorylation; chemiosmotic hypothesis; photorespiration; C3 and C4 pathways; factors affecting photosynthesis.

• Plants Breathe 
• Phases of Respiration: Glycolysis 
  • Glycolysis
  • Glycolysis Pathway
• Phases of Respiration: Fermentation 
  • Fermentation
  • Process of Fermentation
  • Types of Fermentation

  1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
  2. Alcohol Fermentation
  3. Acetic acid Fermentation
  4. Butyric acid Fermentation

  • Advantages of Fermentation
• Oxidation of Pyruvate 
• Types of Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration 
  • Cellular respiration
  • Types of cellular respiration

  1. Aerobic Respiration
  2. Anaerobic Respiration

  • Aerobic respiration in plant/animal
  • Anaerobic respiration in plant/animal
  • Differences in anaerobic respiration in plants and animals
• Phases of Respiration: Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle Or Kreb’s Cycle) 
  • TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
  • Steps of TCA Cycle
• Phases of Respiration: Oxidative Phosphorylation 
  • Oxidative Phosphorylation
  • Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps
• Respiratory Balance Sheet 
• Amphibolic Pathways 
• Respiratory Quotient (R.Q.) 
• Exchange of Gases - in Plants 
• Energy Relations - Number of ATP Molecules Generated 
• Respiration in Plant 
  • Do plants breathe?
  • The process of respiration in plants
  • Respiration in roots
  • Respiration in stems
  • Respiration in leaves
  • Types of respiration

  1. Aerobic Respiration
  2. Anaerobic Respiration

• Exchange of gases; cellular respiration - glycolysis, fermentation (anaerobic), TCA cycle and electron transport system (aerobic); energy relations · number of ATP molecules generated; amphibolic pathways; respiratory quotient.

• Introduction of Plant Growth and Development 
• Growth 
  • Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate 
    • Determinate and Indeterminate Growth
  • Conditions of Growth 
• Phases of Plant Growth 
  • Phases of Plant Growth

  1. Phase of cell division/ formation
  2. Phase of cell enlargement/ elongation
  3. Phase of Cell maturation/ differentiation
• Plant Growth Rate 
• Differentiation, Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation 
• Concept of Development 
  • Sequence of Developmental Processes in a Plant Cell
• Plant Growth Regulators 
  • Characteristics of Growth Regulators 
    • Kinetics of growth
  • Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators 
  • Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators 
    • Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene, Abscisic acid, 
• Photoperiodism 
  • Photoperiodism

  1. Short Day Plants (SDP)
  2. Long Day Plants (LDP)
  3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)

  • Phytochrome
• Vernalisation 
• Co-ordination in Plant: Tropism in Plants 
  • Immediate Response to Stimulus
  • Movement Due to Growth

  1. Phototropism
  2. Geotroplsm
  3. Hydrotroplsm
  4. Thigmotropism
  5. Chemotropism
• Seed Germination 
• Seed Dormancy 
• Plant Growth and Development (Questions) 

• Seed germination; phases of plant growth and plant growth rate; conditions of growth; differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a plant cell; growth regulators - auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA; seed dormancy; vernalisation; photoperiodism.

• Digestion and Absorption Introduction 
• Alimentary Canal 
  • Serosa
  • Muscularis 
  • Submucosa
  • Mucosa
• Digestive Glands 
  • Salivary glands
  • Liver
  • Pancreas
• Digestion of Food 
• Absorption of Digested Products 
  • Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large intestine
• Disorders of Digestive System 
  • Nutritional and Digestive Disorders - PEM, Indigestion, Constipation, Vomiting, Jaundice, Diarrhoea
• Role of Digestive Enzymes and Gastrointestinal Hormones 
• Peristalsis, Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation of Proteins, Carbohydrates and Fats 
• Digestion and Absorption Questions 
• Calorific Values of Proteins 
• Calorific Values of Carbohydrates 
• Calorific Values of Fats 
• Egestion of Food 

• Alimentary canal and digestive glands, role of digestive enzymes and gastrointestinal hormones; Peristalsis, digestion, absorption and assimilation of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; calorific values of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; egestion; nutritional and digestive disorders - PEM, indigestion, constipation, vomiting, jaundice, diarrhoea.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Introduction of Breating and Exchange of Gases 
• Respiratory Organs 
  • Respiratory Organs in Animals
  • gills, lungs
• Human Respiratory System 
  • Nose: Nostrils, Nasal cavity
  • Pharynx 
  • Larynx
  • Trachea (windpipe) 
  • The windpipe
  • Bronchi
  • Lungs
  • Alveoli
  • Bronchioles
• Breathing – Respiratory Cycle 
  • Inspiration (Inhalation)
  • Expiration (Exhalation)
  • Exchange of gases in the Alveoli
  • Difference between inhalation and exhalation
  • Differences between breathing and respiration
  • Model to show mechanism of breathing
  • Control of breathing movements
• Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 
  • Tidal Volume (TV), Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV), Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV),Residual Volume (RV), Inspiratory Capacity (Ic), Expiratory Capacity (EC), Functional Residual Capacity (FRC), Vital Capacity (VC), Total Lung Capacity
• Exchange of Gases 
  • Exchange of Gases - in Humans
• Transport of Gases - Transport of Oxygen 
• Transport of Gases - Transport of Carbon Dioxide 
• Regulation of Breathing 
• Disorders of Respiratory System 
• Breating and Exchange of Gases (Questions) 

• Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; mechanism of breathing and its regulation in humans - exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration, respiratory volume; disorders related to respiration · asthma, emphysema, occupational respiratory disorders.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Introduction of Body Fluids and Circulation 
• Composition of Blood: Plasma 
• Blood 
  • Blood Groups 
    • ABO grouping
    • Rh Grouping, Rh Incompatibility
• Function of Platelets - Clotting of Blood (Coagulation) 
  • Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
  • Blood clotting in a test tube
• Lymph and Lymphatic System 
  • Lymph and Lymphatic System
  • Composition of Lymph
  • Functions of Lymph
• Circulatory Pathways 
  • Human Circulatory System 
    • Circulatory System in Animals, Humans and Structure of Human Heart and Blood Vessels
    • Origin and conduction of heart beat 
    • Cardiac Cycle
    • Cardiac output

    • Blood Pressure

    • Electrocardiogram (ECG)

    • P Wave (Atrial depolarisation)
    • PQ Interval (AV node delay)
    • QRS Complex (Ventricular depolarisation)
    • ST Segment 
    • T wave (Ventricular repolarisation)
  • Cardiac Cycle 
  • Electrocardiograph (ECG) 
• Double Circulation 
• Regulation of Cardiac Activity 
• Disorders of Circulatory System 
  • Disorders of Circulatory System - Hypertension, Coronary Artery Disease, Angina Pectoris and Heart Failure
• Cardiac Output 
• Compatibility of Antigen 
• Body Fluids and Circulation (Questions) 

• Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; composition of lymph and its function; human circulatory system - Structure of human heart and blood vessels; cardiac cycle, cardiac output, ECG; double circulation; regulation of cardiac activity; disorders of circulatory system - hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, heart failure.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Human Excretory System 
  • Kidneys
  • Sweat glands
  • Ureters
  • Urinary bladder
  • Urethra
  • Lungs
• Function of the Kidney - “Production of Urine” 
  • Ultrafiltration
  • Reabsorption
  • Tubular secretion
• Function of the Tubules 
  • Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
  • Henle’s Loop, Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate 
• Regulation of Kidney Function 
  • Regulation of Kidney Function - Reninangiotensin, Atrial Natriuretic Factor, ADH and Diabetes Inspidus
• Concept of Micturition 
• Accessory Excretory Organs 
  • Excretory role of skin
  • Excretory role of lungs
  • Excretory role of liver
• Common Disorders of the Urinary System 
  • Kidney stones
  • Uremia
  • Nephritis
  • Renal Failure
  • Diabetes
  • Urinary tract infection
  • Haemodialysis
  • Peritoneal dialysis 
  • Kidney transplant
• Modes of Excretion: Ammonotelism, Ureotelism, and Uricotelism 
  • Modes of Excretion

  1. Ammonotelism
  2. Ureotelism 
  3. Uricotelism 

  • Nephridiopores
  • Types of nephridia

  1. Protonephridia
  2. Metanephridia
• Osmoregulation 
• Dialysis and Artificial Kidney 
• Excretory Products and Elimination Questions 

• Modes of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; human excretory system - structure and function; urine formation, osmoregulation; regulation of kidney function - renin - angiotensin, atrial natriuretic factor, ADH and diabetes insipidus; role of other organs in excretion; disorders - uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis; dialysis and artificial kidney.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Introduction of Locomotion and Movement 
• Types of Movement 

  Ciliary, Flagellar, Muscular and Amoeboid

• Concept of Muscle 
  • Muscle - Skeletal Muscle, Contractile Proteins and Muscle Contraction
  • Skeletal muscles, Visceral muscles, smooth muscles (nonstriated muscle).
• Structure of Contractile Proteins 
• Mechanism of Muscle Contraction 
• Skeletal System 
  • Skeletal System and Its Functions
• Joints 
• Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System 
  • Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System - Myasthenia Gravis, Tetany, Muscular Dystrophy, Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Gout
• Locomotion and Movement (Questions) 

• Types of movement - ciliary, flagellar, muscular; skeletal muscle- contractile proteins and muscle contraction; skeletal system and its functions; joints; disorders of muscular and skeletal system - myasthenia gravis, tetany, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, osteoporosis, gout.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Human Neural System 
• Neuron (Or Nerve Cell) and Its Types 
  • Structure of the Neuron 
    • Structure of the neuron

    1. Cyton
    2. Dendrites
    3. Axon
    4. Synapse
  • Transmission of Nerve Impulse 
    • Transmission of Nerve Impulse
    • Generation of nerve impulse

    1. Depolarization
    2. Re-polarization

    • Neurotransmitters
  • Transmission of Nerve Impulse 
    • Transmission of Nerve Impulse
    • Generation of nerve impulse

    1. Depolarization
    2. Re-polarization

    • Neurotransmitters
• Concept of Central Neural System (CNS) 
  • Brain

  1. Forebrain
  2. Midbrain
  3. Hindbrain

  •  Spinal cord
• Reflex and Reflex Action 
  • Reflexes
  • Types of actions

  1. Voluntary actions 
  2. Involuntary actions
• Sensory Perception 
• Sense Organs 
• Human Eye: Structure of the Eye 
  • The eyes - Photoreceptor: Rod cell and cone cell
  • External structure of an Eye

  1. Sclera
  2. Conjunctiva
  3. Cornea
  4. Iris
  5. Pupil

  • The internal structure of an Eye

  1. Lens
  2. Retina
  3. Optic nerve
  4. Aqueous Humour
  5. Vitreous Humour
• Sensory Reception and Processing 
  • Eye - Mechanism of Vision 
    • opsin, retinal, visual
  • The Ear - Mechanism of Hearing 
• Human Ear 
  • Structure of Human Ear
  • Mechanism of Human ear
• Neural Control and Coordination Questions 

• Neuron and nerves; Nervous system in humans - central nervous system; peripheral nervous system and visceral nervous system; generation and conduction of nerve impulse; reflex action; sensory perception; sense organs; elementary structure and functions of eye and ear.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]

• Introduction of Chemical Coordination and Integration 
• Human Endocrine System 
  • Human Endocrine System
  • The hormones at a glance
  • The Hypothalamus 
  • Testis 
  • Ovary 
• Human Endocrine Glands 
  • Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis Gland 
  • The Pineal Gland 
  • Thyroid Gland 
  • Parathyroid Gland 
  • Thymus Gland 
  • Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal Gland) 
  • Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) 
• Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract 
• Mechanism of Hormone Action 
  • Mechanism of Hormone Action (Elementary Idea)
• Role of Hormones as Messengers and Regulators 
• Hypo and Hyperactivity and Related Disorders - Dwarfism, Acromegaly, Cretinism, Goiter, Exophthalmic Goiter, Diabetes, Addison'S Disease 
• Chemical Coordination and Integration (Questions) 

• Endocrine glands and hormones; human endocrine system - hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads; mechanism of hormone action (elementary idea); role of hormones as messengers and regulators, hypo - and hyperactivity and related disorders; dwarfism, acromegaly, cretinism, goiter, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes, Addison's disease.
• Note: Diseases related to all the human physiological systems to be taught in brief.

[Part (A) will be assessed through OTBA whereas from the Part (B), there will be usual conceptual question in year end examination.]