Topics
Chemical Substances - Nature and Behaviour
Carbon Compounds
- Carbon: a Versatile Element
- Bonding in Carbon - Covalent Bond
- Carbon: a Versatile Element
- Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds
- Chains, Branches and Rings of Carbon Compound
- Homologous Series of Carbon Compound
- Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
- Chemical Properties of Carbon Compound
- Chemical Properties of Carbon Compound
- Chemical Properties of Carbon Compound
- Ethanol
- Ethanoic Acid
- Soap
- Chemical Properties of Carbon Compound
Metals and Non Metals
- Types of Element: Metals
- Types of Elements: Non-metal
- Chemical Properties of Metals: When Metals Are Burnt in Air
- Chemical Properties of Metals: When Metals React with Water
- Chemical Properties of Metals: When Metals React with Acids
- Chemical Properties of Metals: Metals React with Solutions of Other Metal Salts
- Chemical Properties of Metals: Reactivity Series
- Reaction of Metals with Non-metals
- Formation and Properties of Ionic Compounds
- Types of Element: Metals
- Extraction of Metals from Ore
- Enrichment of Ores
- Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
- Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series
- Extracting Metals Towards the Top of the Activity Series
- Refining of Metals
- Corrosion of Metals and Its Prevention
- Covalent (Molecular) Bond
Periodic Classification of Elements
Acids, Bases and Salts
- Acids
- Bases (Alkalis)
- Indicators
- Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases
- Reaction of Acids and Bases with Metals
- Reaction of Acids with Metal Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates
- Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
- Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base
- Acids and Bases React with Each Other
- Acid Or a Base in a Water Solution
- Strength of Acidic Or Basic Solutions
- Salts
- Salts
- Chemicals from Common Salt (Uses of Salt)
- Preparation and Uses of Sodium Hydroxide
- Preparation and Uses of Bleaching Powder
- Preparation and Uses of Baking Soda
- Preparation and Uses of Washing Soda
- Preparation and Uses of Plaster of Paris
Chemical Reactions
- Classification of Change: Physical Changes
- Classification of Change: Chemical Changes
- Classification of Change: Chemical Changes
- Chemical Equation
- Chemical Equation
- Direct Combination (or Synthesis)
- Decomposition Reactions
- Single Displacement Reactions
- Double Displacement Reaction
- Oxidation and Reduction
- Corrosion of Metals and Its Prevention
- Concept of Rancidity
- Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
World of Living
Heredity and Evolution
- Evolution and Classification - Introduction
- Accumulation of Variation During Reproduction
- Heredity - Inherited Traits
- Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’S Contributions
- Sex Determination in Humans
- Concepts of Evolution
- Evolution - Acquired and Inherited Traits
- Speciation
- Heredity and Evolution
- Evolution and Classification - Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
- Evolution and Classification - Fossils
- Evolution by Stages
- Human Evolution
Reproduction
- Reproduction in Plant
- Reproductive Health - Need and Methods of Family Planning
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Single Organisms - Fission
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Multicellular Organisms - Fragmentation
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Multicellular Organisms - Regeneration
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Single Organisms - Budding
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Multicellular Organisms - Vegetative Propagation
- Modes of Reproduction Used by Multicellular Organisms - Spore Formation
- Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Human Reproductive System
- Reproduction in Plant
- Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Control and Co-ordination in Animals and Plants
- Control and Co-ordination Introduction
- Tropic Movements in Plants
- Coordination in Plants - Movement Due to Growth
- Coordination in Plants - Immediate Response to Stimulus
- Hormones in Animals
- Control and Co-ordination in Animals
- Importance of Variation
- Animals – Nervous System
- Human Brain - Voluntary Action
- Human Brain - Involuntary Action
- Human Brain - Reflex Action
- Control and Co-ordination Questions
Life Processes
Natural Phenomena
- Refraction of Light
- Spherical Mirrors
- Concave Mirror
- Convex Mirror
- Concave Mirror
- Convex Mirror
- Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
- Linear Magnification (M) Due to Spherical Mirrors
- Velocity of Light
- Refraction of Light
- Refraction Through a Rectangular Glass Slab
- Refractive Index
- Refraction by Spherical Lenses
- Convex Lens
- Concave Lens
- Convex Lens
- Concave Lens
- Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses
- Magnification of a Lens
- Power of a Lens
- Human Eye: Structure of the Eye
- Eye Defect and Its Correction: Myopia Or Near-sightedness
- Applications of Spherical Mirrors and Lenses
- Dispersion by a Prism
- Atmospheric Refraction
- Some Natural Phenomena Due to Sunlight
Effects of Current
Magnetic Effects of Current
- Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
- Magnetic Field Lines
- Magnetic Force
- The Bar Magnet
- Magnetic Field Due to a Current carrying Straight Conductor
- Right-Hand Thumb Rule
- Magnetic Field Due to a Current Through a Circular Loop
- Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Solenoid
- Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
- Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
- Electric Motor
- Electromagnetic Induction
- Alternating Current (A.C.) Generator
- Domestic Electric Circuits
- Types of current: Alternating Current (A.C.) and Direct Current (D.C.)
- Introduction of Magnetism
Effects of Current
Natural Resources
Management of Natural Resources
- Conservation and Judicious Use of Natural Resources
- Need to Manage Our Resources
- Forests and Wild Life - Stakeholders
- Forests and Wild Life - Sustainable Management
- Coal and Petroleum
- Water for All - Dams
- Water for All - Water Harvesting
- Overview of Natural Resource Management
- Sustainability of Natural Resources
- Fresh Water Management
Our Environment
Sources of Energy
- Sources of Energy Introduction
- Good Source of Energy
- Different Forms of Energy
- Conventional Sources of Energy
- Heat Energy (Thermal Energy)
- Hydroelectric Energy
- Improvements in the Technology for Using Conventional Sources of Energy
- Solar Energy
- Alternative or Non-conventional Sources of Energy - Energy from the Sea
- Alternative Or Non-conventional Sources of Energy - Geothermal Energy
- Nuclear Energy
- Environmental Consequences
- Energy Source - How Long Will Last Us
- Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Resources
notes
SUBSTITUTION REACTION:-
Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction. Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution reaction because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of another.
A number of products are usually formed with the higher homologues of alkanes.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)
notes
OXIDATION:-
alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids in presence of oxidizing agents KMnO4(Potassium permanganate) or acidic potassium dichromate.
some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others.
These substances are known as oxidising agents.
notes
ADDITION REACTION:-
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel.
You must have seen advertisements stating that some vegetable oils are ‘healthy’. Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
notes
COMBUSTION:-
Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and light. Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons generally burn in air with blue and non sooty flame.
Why do substances burn with or without a flame?
Have you ever observed either a coal or a wood fire? If not, the next time you get a chance, take close note of what happens when the wood or coal starts to burn. You have seen above that a candle or the LPG in the gas stove burns with a flame. However, you will observe the coal or charcoal in an ‘angithi’ sometimes just glows red and gives out heat without a flame. This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning. A luminous flame is seen when the atoms of the gaseous substance are heated and start to glow. The colour produced by each element is a characteristic property of that element. Try and heat a copper wire in the flame of a gas stove and observe its colour. You have seen that incomplete combustion gives soot which is carbon.
Formation of coal and petroleum
Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been subjected to various biological and geological processes. Coal is the remains of trees, ferns, and other plants that lived millions of years ago. These were crushed into the earth, perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. They were pressed down by layers of earth and rock. They slowly decayed into coal. Oil and gas are the remains of millions of tiny plants and animals that lived in the sea. When they died, their bodies sank to the sea bed and were covered by silt. Bacteria attacked the dead remains, turning them into oil and gas under the high pressures they were being subjected to. Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed into rock. The oil and gas seeped into the porous parts of the rock, and got trapped like water in a sponge.